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they established order

  • 1 Order

    subs.
    Regularity: P. and V. κόσμος, ὁ.
    Arrangement: P. and V. τάξις, ἡ, P. διάταξις, ἡ.
    Order of battle: P. and V. τάξις, ἡ, P. παράταξις, ἡ.
    In good order: use adj., P. and V. εὐτάκτως.
    Retreat in good order: P. συντεταγμένοι ἐπαναχωρεῖν.
    Draw up in order of battle: P. παρατάσσεσθαι (mid.) (acc.).
    Be drawn up in order of battle: Ar. and P. παρατάσσεσθαι (pass.).
    They drew up in order against one another: P. ἀντιπαρετάσσοντο.
    In order, in succession: P. and V. ἐφεξῆς, ἑξῆς.
    Action, though in order of time subsequent to speaking and voting, in importance is prior and superior: P. τὸ πράσσειν τοῦ λέγειν καὶ χειροτονεῖν ὕστερον ὂν τῇ τάξει πρότερον τῇ δυνάμει καὶ κρεῖσσόν ἐστι (Dem. 32).
    Tell in order, v.: V. στοιχηγορεῖν (acc.).
    In order that: P. and V. ὅπως (subj. or opt.), ἵνα (subj. or opt.), ὡς (subj. or opt.).
    Bring to order: P. and V. ῥυθμίζειν (Plat.), σωφρονίζειν, Ar. and V. ἁρμόζειν.
    Be the order of the day: P. and V. κρατεῖν, P. ἐπικρατεῖν; see Prevail.
    I am loyal to the established order: P. εὔνους εἰμὶ τοῖς καθεστηκόσι πράγμασι (Lys. 145).
    Class, kind: P. and V. γένος, τό, P. ἔθνος, τό.
    Social division: P. and V. μερίς, ἡ.
    Command: P. πρόσταγμα, τό, ἐπίταγμα, τό, V. ἐντολή, ἡ (Plat. also but rare P.), κέλευσμα, τό, κελευσμός, ὁ, ἐφετμή, ἡ, ἐπιστολαί, αἱ.
    Public command: P. πρόρρησις, ἡ.
    Give public orders: P. and V. προειπεῖν; see Proclaim.
    ——————
    v. trans.
    Regulate: P. and V. κοσμεῖν, τάσσειν, συντάσσειν, Ar. and P. διατιθέναι, P. διακοσμεῖν, διατάσσειν, V. στοιχίζειν, διαστοιχίζεσθαι; see also Arrange.
    Order aright: P. and V. εὖ τιθέναι (or mid.), καλῶς τιθέναι (or mid.).
    Order justly: V. δικαίως τιθέναι.
    Command: P. and V. κελεύειν (τινά τι), ἐπιστέλλειν (τινί τι). ἐπιτάσσειν (τινί τι), προστάσσειν (τινί τι), ἐπισκήπτειν (τινί τι), Ar. and V. ἐφίεσθαι (τινί τι); see Command.
    Prescribe: P. and V. ἐξηγεῖσθαι.
    Give signal to: P. and V. σημαίνειν (dat.).
    Order about domineer over: P. and V. δεσπόζειν (gen. V. also acc.).
    Join in ordering: P. and V. συγκελεύειν (absol.).

    Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary. A vocabulary of the Attic language > Order

  • 2 order

    order [ˈɔ:dər]
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
       a. ( = sequence) ordre m
       b. ( = proper state)
    ► in order [room] en ordre ; [passport, documents] en règle
    • would it be in order for me to speak to her? pourrais-je lui parler ?
    • it seems a celebration is in order! il va falloir fêter ça !► out of order [machine] en panne ; [remark] (inf) déplacé
    • "out of order" « hors service »
    • you're way out of order! (inf) ça se fait pas ! (inf)► adjective + order
    • in good order ( = in good condition) en bon état
       d. ( = proper behaviour) ordre m
    • to keep order [police] faire régner l'ordre ; [teacher] faire régner la discipline
    • order, order! silence !
       e. ( = category) (biological) ordre m ; (social) classe f ; ( = kind) ordre m
    • something in the order of €3,000 de l'ordre de 3 000 €
       f. ( = the way things are) ordre m
       g. ( = command) ordre m
    • that's an order! c'est un ordre !
    • by order of sb/sth par ordre de qn/qch
    • I don't take orders from you! je n'ai pas d'ordres à recevoir de vous !
       i. ( = portion of food) portion f
       k. (religious) ordre m
       b. ( = ask for) [+ goods, meal, taxi] commander
       c. ( = put in sequence) classer
       d. [+ one's affairs] régler
    • are you ready to order? vous avez choisi ?
    * * *
    ['ɔːdə(r)] 1.
    1) ( logical arrangement) ordre m

    to set ou put one's life in order — remettre de l'ordre dans sa vie

    2) ( sequence) ordre m

    in the right/wrong order — dans le bon/mauvais ordre

    to be out of order — [files, records] être déclassé

    3) (discipline, control) ordre m

    to keep order — [teacher] maintenir la discipline

    4) ( established state) ordre m
    5) ( command) ordre m ( to do de faire) also Law

    to have ou to be under orders to do — avoir (l')ordre de faire

    6) (in shop, restaurant) commande f

    a rush/repeat order — une commande urgente/renouvelée

    to be out of order — [phone line] être en dérangement; [lift, machine] être en panne

    order! order! — un peu de silence, s'il vous plaît!

    9) ( all right)

    in order — [documents] en règle

    10) Religion ordre m
    11) (rank, scale)

    of the order of 15% — GB

    in the order of 15% — US de l'ordre de 15%

    pay to the order of — (on cheque, draft) payer à l'ordre de

    13) GB (honorary association, title) ordre m
    2.
    orders plural noun Religion ordres mpl
    3.
    in order that conjunctional phrase ( with the same subject) afin de (+ infinitive), pour (+ infinitive); ( with different subjects) afin que (+ subj), pour que (+ subj)
    4.
    in order to prepositional phrase pour (+ infinitive), afin de (+ infinitive)
    5.
    1) ( command) ordonner [inquiry, retrial]
    2) commander [goods, meal]; réserver [taxi] ( for pour)
    3) ( put in order) classer [files, cards]; mettre [quelque chose] dans l'ordre [names, dates]
    6.
    intransitive verb [diner, customer] commander
    7.
    ordered past participle adjective [series] ordonné
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-French dictionary > order

  • 3 order

    A n
    1 ( logical arrangement) ordre m ; a sense of order un sens de l'ordre ; it's in the natural order of things c'est dans l'ordre naturel des choses ; to produce order out of chaos produire de l'ordre à partir du désordre ; to put ou set sth in order mettre qch en ordre [affairs] ; to set ou put one's life in order remettre de l'ordre dans sa vie ;
    2 ( sequence) ordre m ; to be in alphabetical/chronological order être dans l'ordre alphabétique/chronologique ; to put sth in order classer [files, record cards] ; to put the names in alphabetical order mettre les noms par ordre alphabétique ; in order of priority par ordre de priorité ; in ascending/descending order dans l'ordre croissant/décroissant ; in the right/wrong order dans le bon/mauvais ordre ; to be out of order [files, records] être en désordre, être mélangé ;
    3 (discipline, control) ordre m ; to restore order rétablir l'ordre ; to keep order [police, government] maintenir l'ordre ; [teacher] maintenir la discipline ; ⇒ law and order, public order ;
    4 ( established state) ordre m ; the old/existing order l'ordre ancien/actuel ;
    5 ( command) ordre m, consigne f (to do de faire) ; to give/issue an order donner/lancer un ordre ; to carry out an order exécuter un ordre ; to give an order for the crowd to disperse donner à la foule l'ordre de se disperser ; to be under sb's orders être sous les ordres de qn ; to have ou to be under orders to do avoir (l')ordre de faire ; my orders are to guard the door j'ai l'ordre de surveiller l'entrée ; I have orders not to let anybody through j'ai ordre de ne laisser passer personne ; to take orders from sb recevoir des ordres de qn ; they take their orders from Paris ils reçoivent leurs ordres de Paris ; I won't take orders from you je ne suis pas à vos ordres ; he won't take orders from anybody il ne supporte pas que quiconque lui donne des ordres ; on the orders of the General sur les ordres du Général ; to act on sb's order agir sur l'ordre de qn ; that's an order! c'est un ordre! ; orders are orders les ordres sont les ordres ; until further orders jusqu'à nouvel ordre ;
    6 Comm ( request to supply) commande f (for de) ; ( in restaurant) commande f (of de) ; to place an order passer une commande ; to put in ou place an order for sth commander qch ; to place an order with sb for sth commander qch à qn ; a grocery order une commande d'épicerie ; a telephone order une commande par téléphone ; a rush/repeat order une commande urgente/renouvelée ; the books are on order les livres ont été commandés ; made to order fait sur commande ; cash with order payable à la commande ;
    7 ( operational state) to be in good/perfect order être en bon/parfait état ; in working ou running order en état de marche ; to be out of order [phone line] être en dérangement ; [lift, machine] être en panne ;
    8 ( correct procedure) to call the meeting to order déclarer la séance ouverte ; order! order! un peu de silence, s'il vous plaît! ; to call sb to order rappeler qn à l'ordre ; to be in order [documents, paperwork] être en règle ; the Honourable member is perfectly in order GB Pol Monsieur le député n'enfreint aucunement les règles ; the Speaker ruled the question out of order le Président de l'Assemblée a déclaré que cela était contraire à la procédure ; it is perfectly in order for him to refuse to pay il a tout à fait le droit de refuser de payer ; would it be out of order for me to phone her at home? est-ce que ce serait déplacé de lui téléphoner chez elle? ; your remark was way out of order ta remarque était tout à fait déplacée ; you're well ou way out of order ○ tu dépasses les bornes ; I hear that congratulations are in order il paraît que ça se fait de féliciter ; a toast would seem to be in order il me semble qu'un toast serait le bienvenu ; the order of the day Mil, Pol l'ordre du jour ; economy is the order of the day fig l'économie est à l'ordre du jour ;
    9 ( taxonomic group) ordre m ;
    10 Relig ordre m ; closed/teaching order ordre m cloîtré/enseignant ;
    11 (rank, scale) craftsmen of the highest order des artisans de premier ordre ; investment of this order is very welcome les investissements de cet ordre sont tout à fait souhaitables ; talent of this order is rare un tel talent est rare ; the higher/lower orders les classes supérieures/inférieures ; of the order of 15% GB, in the order of 15% US de l'ordre de 15% ;
    12 Jur ( decree) ordre m ; an order of the Court un ordre du tribunal ; by order of the Minister par ordre du ministre ;
    13 Fin pay to the order of T. Williams (on cheque, draft) payer à l'ordre de T. Williams ; ⇒ banker's order, money order, postal order, standing order ;
    14 ( on Stock Exchange) ordre m (de Bourse) ; buying/selling order ordre m d'achat/de vente ; limit order ordre m (à cours) limité ; stop order ordre m stop ;
    15 GB (honorary association, title) ordre m (of de) ; she was awarded the Order of the Garter on lui a conféré l'Ordre de la Jarretière ;
    16 Archit ordre m ;
    17 Mil ( formation) ordre m ; ( clothing) tenue f ; battle order ordre m de bataille ; close order ordre m serré ; short-sleeve order tenue f d'été.
    B orders npl Relig ordres mpl ; major/minor orders les ordres majeurs/mineurs ; to be in Holy order être dans les ordres ; to take Holy orders entrer dans les ordres.
    C in order that conj phr ( with the same subject) afin de (+ infinitive), pour (+ infinitive) ; ( with different subjects) afin que (+ subj), pour que (+ subj) ; I've come in order that I might help you je suis venu pour t'aider ; he brought the proofs in order that I might check them il a apporté les épreuves pour que je puisse les vérifier.
    D in order to prep phr pour (+ infinitive), afin de (+ infinitive) ; he came in order to talk to me il est venu pour me parler ; I'll leave in order not to disturb you je partirai pour ne pas te déranger.
    E vtr
    1 ( command) ordonner [inquiry, retrial, investigation] ; to order sb to do ordonner à qn de faire ; to order the closure/delivery of sth ordonner la fermeture/livraison de qch ; to order sb home/to bed donner à qn l'ordre de rentrer chez lui/d'aller se coucher ; to order sth to be done donner l'ordre de faire qch ; to order that sth be done ordonner que qch soit fait ; the council ordered the building to be demolished le conseil municipal a ordonné la démolition de ce bâtiment ; the soldiers were ordered to disembark les soldats ont reçu l'ordre de débarquer ; ‘keep quiet,’ she ordered ‘taisez-vous,’ a-t-elle ordonné ;
    2 ( request the supply of) commander [goods, meal] (for sb pour qn) ; réserver [taxi] (for pour) ;
    3 ( arrange) organiser [affairs] ; classer [files, cards] ; mettre [qch] dans l'ordre [names, dates].
    F vi [diner, customer] commander.
    in short order tout de suite.
    ■ order about, order around:
    ▶ order [sb] around donner des ordres à qn ; he loves ordering people around il adore donner des ordres ; you've got no right to order me around je n'ai pas d'ordre à recevoir de vous.
    ▶ order [sb] off [referee] expulser [player] ; to order sb off ordonner à qn de quitter [land, grass].
    ■ order out:
    ▶ order [sb] out
    1 ( summon) appeler [troops] ; [union] appeler [qn] à la grève [members] ;
    2 ( send out) to order sb out of faire sortir qn de [classroom].

    Big English-French dictionary > order

  • 4 establish

    [i'stæbliʃ]
    1) (to settle firmly in a position (eg a job, business etc): He established himself (in business) as a jeweller.) estabelecer(-se)
    2) (to found; to set up (eg a university, a business): How long has the firm been established?) estabelecer/fundar
    3) (to show to be true; to prove: The police established that he was guilty.) estabelecer
    •
    - establishment
    - the Establishment
    * * *
    es.tab.lish
    [ist'æbli8] vt+vi estabelecer: 1 fundar, instituir. he established an account / ele abriu uma conta-corrente. 2 fixar, assentar, firmar. 3 determinar, decretar. 4 organizar. they established order / eles restabeleceram a ordem. 5 introduzir. 6 bater (recorde). 7 provar, demonstrar. 8 verificar, constatar. 9 formar, constituir (governo).

    English-Portuguese dictionary > establish

  • 5 establish

    i'stæbliʃ
    1) (to settle firmly in a position (eg a job, business etc): He established himself (in business) as a jeweller.) etablere, befeste, innrette
    2) (to found; to set up (eg a university, a business): How long has the firm been established?) grunnlegge, stifte, opprette
    3) (to show to be true; to prove: The police established that he was guilty.) bevise, bringe på det rene, fastslå
    •
    - establishment
    - the Establishment
    etablere
    --------
    grunne
    --------
    opprette
    --------
    stifte
    verb \/ɪˈstæblɪʃ\/, \/eˈstæblɪʃ\/
    1) opprette, grunnlegge, stifte, bygge
    2) skaffe plass hos, plassere
    3) utnevne, innsette, ansette, engasjere
    4) installere, etablere
    5) skape, innføre, opprette
    6) trygge, sikre, befeste, grunnfeste
    7) fastslå, bevise, bekrefte, påvise
    • how can we establish his innocence?
    8) forklaring: å gjøre trosretning eller kirke til statskirke
    9) ( kortspill) etablere en farge
    be established at være plassert i, ha sitt sete i
    establish as utnevne til
    establish one's claims gjøre sine krav gjeldende
    establish oneself skape seg et navn
    hun skapte seg et navn som en sterk leder etablere seg, åpne egen bedrift
    slå seg ned, installere seg, slå rot

    English-Norwegian dictionary > establish

  • 6 establish

    i'stæbliʃ
    1) (to settle firmly in a position (eg a job, business etc): He established himself (in business) as a jeweller.) establecer(se)
    2) (to found; to set up (eg a university, a business): How long has the firm been established?) fundar
    3) (to show to be true; to prove: The police established that he was guilty.) probar
    •
    - establishment
    - the Establishment
    establish vb establecer
    tr[ɪ'stæblɪʃ]
    1 (set up) establecer, fundar, crear
    2 (find out, determine) determinar, averiguar; (prove correct, show to be true) probar, demostrar, verificar
    ■ can we just establish the facts? ¿podemos verificar los hechos?
    3 (cause to be accepted - precedent, theory) sentar; (- fame, reputation) consolidar, consagrar; (- habit, belief, custom) establecer
    4 (set up - contact, communication, etc) establecer, entablar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to establish oneself establecerse (como algo)
    to establish somebody ayudar a alguien a establecerse
    establish [ɪ'stæblɪʃ, ɛ-] vt
    1) found: establecer, fundar
    2) set up: establecer, instaurar, instituir
    3) prove: demostrar, probar
    v.
    • arraigar v.
    • demostrar v.
    • erigir v.
    • establecer v.
    • fundamentar v.
    • fundar v.
    • instaurar v.
    • montar v.
    • mostrar v.
    • plantar v.
    • plantear v.
    • probar v.
    • verificar v.
    ɪ'stæblɪʃ
    1.
    a) \<\<colony/community/company\>\> establecer*, fundar; \<\<committee/fund\>\> instituir*, crear
    b) \<\<criteria/procedure/diplomatic relations\>\> establecer*
    c) ( prove) \<\<guilt/innocence\>\> establecer*; ( ascertain) \<\<motive/fact/identity\>\> establecer*

    2.
    v refl

    to establish oneself — \<\<person\>\> establecerse*

    [ɪs'tæblɪʃ]
    VT
    1) (=set up) [+ business, state, committee] establecer, fundar; [+ custom, rule, peace, order] establecer; [+ precedent] establecer, sentar; [+ relations] establecer, entablar; [+ power, authority] afirmar; [+ reputation] ganarse

    to establish o.s. — establecerse, consolidarse

    2) (=prove) [+ fact, rights] comprobar, demostrar; [+ identity] verificar; [+ sb's innocence] probar, demostrar

    we have established that... — hemos comprobado que...

    3) (=find out, discover) averiguar; [+ date] determinar
    * * *
    [ɪ'stæblɪʃ]
    1.
    a) \<\<colony/community/company\>\> establecer*, fundar; \<\<committee/fund\>\> instituir*, crear
    b) \<\<criteria/procedure/diplomatic relations\>\> establecer*
    c) ( prove) \<\<guilt/innocence\>\> establecer*; ( ascertain) \<\<motive/fact/identity\>\> establecer*

    2.
    v refl

    to establish oneself — \<\<person\>\> establecerse*

    English-spanish dictionary > establish

  • 7 establish

    ɪsˈtæblɪʃ гл.
    1) укреплять, делать твердым, стойким Harriet's cheerful look and manner established hers. ≈ Бодрый вид и поведение Хэрриет укрепили ее дух.
    2) устанавливать, вводить They established friendly relations. ≈ Они установили дружеские отношения. We had already established contact with the museum. ≈ Мы уже наладили связи с музеем. to establish the edict ≈ издавать указ Syn: bring about, effect
    2.
    3) основывать, учреждать to establish a republic ≈ создать республику The school was established in 1989 by an Italian professor. ≈ Школа была основана в 1989 году итальянским профессором. Syn: found I, set up
    4) упрочивать, устраивать( на прочной или постоянной основе) We are now comfortably established in out new house. ≈ Мы уже удобно устроились в нашем новом доме. The role established her as a star. ≈ Эта роль упрочила ее положение как звезды. He established his son in business. ≈ Он устроил своего сына в коммерцию. Mr X was established as governor of the province. ≈ Мистер X стал правителем области. Syn: set up
    5) устанавливать, выяснять, определять established my innocence ≈ доказал мою невиновность It will be essential to establish how the money is being spent. ≈ Очень важно установить, как тратятся деньги. An autopsy was being done to establish the cause of death. ≈ Было произведено вскрытие, чтобы определить причину смерти. Syn: ascertain, prove основывать, учреждать;
    создавать, организовывать - to * a state создать государство - to * a newspaper основать газету - to * an international organization учредить международную организацию - *ed in 1901 существует с 1901 г. (о фирме) устанавливать, создавать - to * order навести порядок - to * conditions under which... создать условия, при которых... - to * a price in the market установить рыночную цену - to * relations установить отношения - to * a precedent создать прецедент - peace was *ed был установлен мир - the seat of the Court shall be *ed at the Hague местоприбыванием суда устанавливается Гаага упрочивать, укреплять;
    утверждать - to * one's health укрепить свое здоровье - to * one's reputation упрочить свою репутацию - to be *ed in the faith утвердиться в вере устраивать - to * one's son in business создать своему сыну положение в деловом мире - to * oneself устраиваться - to * oneself in a new house переехать в новый дом - to * oneself in literature создать себе имя в литературе - the doctor *ed a good practice in London доктор создал себе в Лондоне широкую практику - he *ed himself as a leading surgeon он занял положение ведущего хирурга - we *ed ourselves( военное) мы закрепились на местности устанавливать, выяснять, определять - to * smb.'s whereabouts установить чье-либо местопребывание - to * smb.'s name выяснить чью-либо фамилию - to * certain facts выяснить некоторые данные - facts *ed by the Commission факты, установленные комиссией - it is *ed beyond controversy that... бесспорно установлено, что... - the theory is not yet scientifically *ed эта теория еще научно не обоснована приняться( о растении) укоренить, вкоренить - the habit was now well *ed привычка уже стала прочной - this scientific belief is too well *ed to be overthrown это научное представление слишком укоренилось, чтобы его можно было опровергнуть назначать, устраивать ( на должность) ;
    возводить (в сан) издавать (закон) ;
    устанавливать (правило) ;
    вводить (систему) постановлять, устанавливать (законом) - as *ed by law как установлено законом, в установленном порядке (юридическое) доказывать - to * a claim обосновать претензию (на что-либо) - to * a fact установить (какой-либо) факт - to * smb.'s guilt установить чью-либо виновность - to * a point обосновать положение утверждать - to a will утвердить( судом) завещание( юридическое) (редкое) передавать права (кому-либо) (специальное) заложить (фундамент) разбить( трассу, сад) (военное) развертывать (склад, госпиталь) (финансовое) открывать (аккредитив) > to * a Church возвести церковь в положение господствующей establish выяснять ~ (юридически) доказать ~ доказывать ~ заложить (фундамент) ~ назначать ~ определять ~ организовывать ~ основывать, создавать, учреждать ~ основывать;
    создавать;
    учреждать ~ основывать ~ открывать (аккредитив) ~ открывать аккредитив ~ создавать ~ укреплять ~ упрочивать;
    to establish one's health восстановить свое здоровье;
    to establish one's reputation упрочить свою репутацию ~ упрочивать ~ устанавливать (обычай, факт) ~ устанавливать, создавать;
    устраивать;
    to establish favourable conditions( for smth.) создать благоприятные условия (для чего-л.) ~ устанавливать ~ устраивать ~ учреждать ~ a fund учреждать фонд ~ a market создавать рынок ~ a precedent создавать прецедент ~ a right устанавливать право ~ a trust создавать траст ~ a trust учреждать траст ~ a trust for endowment of учреждать дарственный фонд ~ устанавливать, создавать;
    устраивать;
    to establish favourable conditions (for smth.) создать благоприятные условия (для чего-л.) ~ упрочивать;
    to establish one's health восстановить свое здоровье;
    to establish one's reputation упрочить свою репутацию ~ упрочивать;
    to establish one's health восстановить свое здоровье;
    to establish one's reputation упрочить свою репутацию ~ oneself as устраиваться в качестве to ~ oneself in a new house поселиться в новом доме ~ that waiver is in order обосновывать законность отказа

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > establish

  • 8 rule

    ru:l
    1. сущ.
    1) а) правило, норма to adopt a rule ≈ принять за правило to apply, enforce a rule ≈ ввести правило to break, violate a rule ≈ нарушать правило to establish, lay down, make rules ≈ устанавливать, определять правила to formulate a rule ≈ сформулировать правило to obey, observe a rule ≈ подчиняться правилу to rescind, revoke a rule ≈ отменять правило firm, hard-and-fast, inflexible, strict rule ≈ твердое правило general rule ≈ общее правило ground rule ≈ основные правила игры It's our rule not to smoke at staff conferences. ≈ У нес не принято курить на встречах персонала. They established a rule that everyone must share the expenses. ≈ Они ввели правило, что каждый должен оплачивать часть расходов. (to be) against, in violation of the rules ≈ нарушать правила it is a rule with them ≈ у них так заведено conflict-of-interest rule exclusionary rule gag rule golden rule majority rule rewrite rule substitution rule rule of the road rule of three rules of decorum as a rule by rule standing rule б) принцип, уклад;
    привычка, обычай killing animals never was my rule ≈ я старался никогда не убивать животных
    2) мн. устав, перечень правил, свод положений(какого-л. общества, ордена и т. п.)
    3) юр. судебное постановление по конкретному делу ;
    предписание, решение суда - nisi
    4) правление;
    владычество to establish one's rule ≈ установить власть to extend one's rule ≈ простирать свою власть to overthrow smb.'s rule ≈ свергнуть чью-л. власть benevolent rule ≈ благожелательная, снисходительная власть despotic rule ≈ деспотическая власть foreign rule ≈ иностранная власть, иностранное владычество (в каких-либо захваченных государствах) home rule ≈ местная власть minority rule ≈ власть меньшинства mob rule ≈ власть толпы popular rule ≈ народная власть
    5) линейка( обык. масштабная)
    6) полигр. линейка;
    шпон ∙ rule of thumb
    2. гл.
    1) а) править;
    господствовать, властвовать( особ. о монархах) Queen Victoria ruled over the British Empire for more than 60 years. ≈ Королева Виктория правила Британской империей более 60 лет. Syn: dominate, hold sway, control б) управлять, руководить;
    контролировать the whole process was ruled by my wife ≈ всем процессом управляла моя жена
    2) преим. юр. устанавливать порядок производства;
    разрешать, вести дело I'm afraid that the judge might rule against you. ≈ Боюсь, судья будет настроен против тебя.
    3) проводить параллельные линии;
    графить, линовать( обык. с помощью линейки) Syn: line, draw columns
    4) оставаться, держаться на определенном уровне (о ценах, ставках и пр.) ∙ rule off rule out правило;
    норма;
    принцип - unanimity * принцип единогласия - * of the road правила дорожного движения;
    (морское) правила расхождения судов - ten second * правило игры в зонах (баскетбол) - * of three (математика) тройное правило - *s of procedure регламент, правила процедуры;
    (юридическое) процессуальные нормы;
    порядок судопроизводства - international *s in force действующие нормы международного права - generally recognized *s of international law общепризнанные нормы международного права привычка, обычай - as a * как правило;
    обычно - to make it a * взять за правило - my * is to have breakfast at seven o'clock обычно я завтракаю в 7 часов утра - it is a * with us у нас такое правило /-ой обычай/ - rainy weather is the * here здесь как правило стоит дождливая погода критерий, стандарт - hard and fast * точный критерий - *s of conduct правила /нормы/ поведения - by * по шаблону, механически - he does everything by * он всегда действует по шаблону, он никогда не проявляет инициативы правление, владычество, господство - during the * of George III в царствование Георга III - countries that were once under the British * страны, которые когда-то были под владычеством Англии pl устав (общества, ордена) - party *s устав партии - *s of the exchange биржевой устав, правила биржи (the *s) (историческое) территория по соседству с тюрьмой, на которой разрешалось жить некоторым заключенным (особ. должникам) (юридическое) постановление по конкретному делу;
    предписание;
    приказ - * absolute постановление суда, имеющее окончательную силу - * nisi условно-окончательное предписание суда, имеющее неокончательную силу ( вступающее в силу с определенного срока, если оно до этого не будет отменено) линейка;
    масштаб - comparing * масштабная линейка - folding * складной метр правило (полиграфия) линейка;
    шпон > there is no * without an exception нет правил без исключения > (the) exception proves the * исключение подтверждает правило управлять, править;
    господствовать, властвовать - to * (over) the country править страной - to * with a heavy hand править железной рукой /деспотически/ - to * the market господствовать на рынке - to * over great overseas territories господствовать над огромными заморскими территориями царствовать;
    быть на троне - Queen Victoria *d (for) nearly sixty years королева Виктория правила почти 60 лет руководить - the headmaster *d the school with a firm hand директор установил в школе строгую дисциплину - they are *d over by a dictatorial boss ими командует начальник с диктаторскими замашками контролировать, управлять;
    сдерживать - to * a fractious horse сдерживать норовистую лошадь - to * one's actions контролировать свои поступки - to * one's affections сдерживать свои чувства - to be *d руководствоваться( чем-л.) ;
    слушаться чьего-л. совета преим. (юридическое) разрешать (дело) ;
    постановлять;
    устанавливать порядок производства - to * out of order признать недопустимым - to * against smth. вынести постановление, запрещающее что-л. - the speaker was *d out of order by the chairman председатель( собрания) лишил оратора слова - the chairman *d against admitting the press to the meeting председатель отклонил предложение о допуске представителей печати линовать, графить - to * lines on paper, to * paper линовать бумагу (коммерческое) стоять на уровне( о ценах, ставках и т. п.) - prices continue to * high цены продолжают стоять на высоком уровне - prices *d lower цены понизились > to * the roast /the roost/ управлять, распоряжаться, хозяйничать, командовать, повелевать > to * with a rod of iron править железной рукой appropriation ~ правило выделения ассигнований rules of the game правила игры;
    rules of decorum правила приличия, правила этикета;
    as a rule как правило, обычно;
    by rule по (установленным) правилам as a ~ как правило basic ~ основное правило break a ~ нарушать правило rules of the game правила игры;
    rules of decorum правила приличия, правила этикета;
    as a rule как правило, обычно;
    by rule по (установленным) правилам capital requirement ~ правило оценки инвестиций в основной и оборотный капитал choice-of-law ~ правило выбора правовых норм column ~ полигр. строкоразрядная линейка common ~ постановление суда, принятое без ходатайства стороны compositional inference ~ вчт. композиционное правило вывода connecting factor ~ правило коллизионной привязки empirical ~ эмпирическое правило estimation ~ вчт. правило оценивания exemption ~ правило предоставления льгот first loss ~ правило первых убытков first-in-first-out ~ вчт. принцип обслуживания в порядке поступления gag ~ жесткий регламент gag ~ политика затыкания рта general ~ общая норма general ~ общее правило golden ~ золотое правило банковского бизнеса (кредиты и депозиты должны балансироваться по срокам) hard and fast ~ твердое правило;
    точный критерий;
    international rules in force действующие нормы международного права home ~ автономия home ~ (H. R.) ист. гомруль home ~ самоуправление, автономия home ~ самоуправление to make it a ~ взять за правило;
    I make it a rule to get up early я обычно рано встаю inference ~ вчт. правило вывода infringe a ~ не соблюдать правило hard and fast ~ твердое правило;
    точный критерий;
    international rules in force действующие нормы международного права ~ правило;
    принцип;
    норма;
    образец;
    it is a rule with us у нас такое правило joint ~ общее правило last-in-first-out ~ вчт. обслуживание в обратном порядке legal ~ законное правило to make it a ~ взять за правило;
    I make it a rule to get up early я обычно рано встаю standing ~ постоянно действующие правила;
    to make rules устанавливать правила nonpreemptive ~ вчт. правило обслуживания без прерывания omnibus ~ мор. страх. правило, объединяющее различные требования optimal decision ~ правило принятия оптимальных решений optional ~ необязательное правило perpetuity ~ непрерывное правопреемство priority ~ вчт. правило назначения приоритетов pro rata ~ правило пропорциональности pro rata ~ принцип пропорциональности production ~ вчт. правило вывода provisional ~ временная норма provisional ~ временное правило queue-selection ~ вчт. правило выбора очереди random ~ вчт. правило случайного выбора resolution ~ вчт. правило резолюции restrictive practices ~ принцип ограничительной торговой практики restrictive ~ ограничительная норма rewrite ~ вчт. правило подстановки rule власть ~ господство ~ господствовать ~ действовать ~ контролировать ~ полигр. линейка;
    шпон ~ (масштабная) линейка;
    наугольник;
    масштаб ~ линовать, графить ~ норма ~ норма права ~ постановление, решение суда или судьи;
    rule nisi см. nisi ~ постановление, предписание, приказ ~ постановление ~ постановлять (that) ;
    устанавливать правило ~ постановлять ~ правило;
    принцип;
    норма;
    образец;
    it is a rule with us у нас такое правило ~ правило ~ править ~ правление, господство, власть ~ правление, власть;
    владычество, господство;
    the rule of the people власть народа;
    the rule of force власть силы ~ правление ~ предписание ~ разрешать дело ~ руководить ~ стоять на определенном уровне (о ценах) ;
    rule out исключать ~ стоять на уровне ~ управлять, править, властвовать;
    руководить;
    господствовать ~ управлять ~ устав (общества, ордена) ~ устанавливать ~ устанавливать порядок судебного производства ~ устанавливать правило ~ устанавливать правовую норму ~ based system вчт. продкукционная система ~ for borrowing правило получения займа ~ постановление, решение суда или судьи;
    rule nisi см. nisi ~ of apportionment правило распределения ~ of caveat emptor правило "качество на риске покупателя" ~ of dating правило датировки ~ of entry правило бухгалтерской проводки ~ правление, власть;
    владычество, господство;
    the rule of the people власть народа;
    the rule of force власть силы ~ of imputed rent value правило условно начисленной арендной стоимости ~ of law власть закона ~ of law господство права ~ of law законность ~ of law норма права, правовая норма ~ of law норма права ~ of law правопорядок ~ of law торжество права ~ of negligence принцип преступной небрежности ~ of notice правило уведомления ~ of precedent норма прецедента ~ правление, власть;
    владычество, господство;
    the rule of the people власть народа;
    the rule of force власть силы ~ of the road правила (уличного) движения ~ of the road мор. правила расхождения судов;
    rule of three мат. тройное правило ~ of the road мор. правила расхождения судов;
    rule of three мат. тройное правило ~ of thumb практический способ, метод (в отличие от научного) ~ of thumb приближенный подсчет ~ of transition принцип перехода ~ стоять на определенном уровне (о ценах) ;
    rule out исключать ~ out исключать rules of the game правила игры;
    rules of decorum правила приличия, правила этикета;
    as a rule как правило, обычно;
    by rule по (установленным) правилам rules of the game правила игры;
    rules of decorum правила приличия, правила этикета;
    as a rule как правило, обычно;
    by rule по (установленным) правилам scope ~s вчт. правила видимости slide ~ = sliding rule slide ~ счетная логарифмическая линейка slide ~ = sliding rule sliding ~ логарифмическая линейка slip ~ правило-листовка special ~ специальное правило standing ~ постоянно действующие правила;
    to make rules устанавливать правила statutory ~ установленное правило tax ~ принцип налогообложения taxation ~ принцип налогообложения transformation ~ вчт. правило трансформации transitional ~ временно действующее правило venue ~ правило территориальной подсудности visibility ~ вчт. правило видимости work ~s правила распорядка на предприятии

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > rule

  • 9 system

    system ['sɪstəm]
    (a) (organization, structure) système m;
    ∎ the British educational system le système éducatif britannique;
    ∎ the Social Security system le système des prestations sociales;
    ∎ they live in a democratic/totalitarian system ils vivent dans un système démocratique/totalitaire
    (b) (method) système m;
    ∎ a new system of sorting mail un nouveau système pour trier le courrier
    (c) Anatomy système m;
    ∎ the muscular system le système musculaire
    (d) (orderliness) méthode f;
    ∎ you need some system in the way you work vous devriez être plus systématique ou méthodique dans votre travail
    (e) (human body) organisme m;
    ∎ bad for the system nuisible à l'organisme;
    ∎ figurative to get sth out of one's system se débarrasser de qch;
    ∎ go on, get it out of your system! vas-y, défoule-toi!;
    ∎ she can't get him out of her system elle n'arrive pas à l'oublier
    (f) (equipment, device, devices)
    ∎ the electrical system needs to be replaced l'installation électrique a besoin d'être remplacée;
    ∎ a fault in the cooling system un défaut dans le circuit de refroidissement
    (g) (network) réseau m;
    ∎ the rail/river/road system le réseau ferroviaire/fluvial/routier
    (h) Computing système m
    ∎ the system le système;
    ∎ they're hoping to overthrow the system ils espèrent renverser le système (en place);
    ∎ familiar you can't beat or buck the system on ne peut rien contre le système□
    (j) Geology système m;
    ∎ the Precambrian system le système précambrien
    ►► Computing systems analysis analyse f des systèmes;
    Computing systems analyst analyste-programmeur(euse) m,f;
    Computing systems board carte f système;
    Architecture system building préfabrication f;
    Computing system bus bus m système;
    Marketing systems buying achat m de système;
    Marketing systems contracting contrats mpl de système;
    Computing system crash panne f du système;
    system date date f système;
    Computing system disk disque f système;
    Computing systems engineer ingénieur m système;
    Computing systems engineering assistance f technico-commerciale;
    Computing system error erreur f système;
    Computing system failure panne f du système;
    Computing system file fichier m système;
    Computing system folder dossier m système;
    Computing systems management direction f systématisée;
    Computing systems operator sysop m, opérateur m système;
    system privilege privilège m d'accès au système;
    Computing system program programme m système;
    Computing system prompt invite f du système, message m d'attente du système;
    Computing system software logiciel m d'exploitation, logiciel m système

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > system

  • 10 machinery

    1. организационный аппарат
    2. оборудование
    3. механизм
    4. машины и оборудование
    5. машины
    6. машинное оборудование

     

    машинное оборудование
    термин " машинное оборудование" означает:
    - сборочную единицу, состоящую из соединенных частей или компонентов, по крайней мере, одна из которых находится в движении, имеет соответствующие приводы, схему управления, цепь питания, и т.д., соединенные вместе с целью специального применения, в частности, для производства, обработки, перемещения или упаковки материала;
    - группу машин, которые для достижения той же цели организованы и управляется таким образом, что они функционируют как единое целое;
    - взаимозаменяемое оборудование, модифицирующее функции машины, которое отдельно поставляется на рынок и предназначено для установки на машине или на серии различных машин или на приводном устройстве самим оператором, при условии, что данное оборудование не является запасной частью или инструментом.
    [Директива 98/37/ЕЭС по машинному оборудованию]

    EN

    machinery
    ‘machinery’ means:
    — an assembly of linked parts or components, at least one of which moves, with the appropriate
    actuators, control and power circuits, etc., joined together for a specific application, in particular
    for the processing, treatment, moving or packaging of a material,
    — an assembly of machines which, in order to achieve the same end, are arranged and controlled so that they function as an integral whole,
    — interchangeable equipment modifying the function of a machine, which is placed on the market for the purpose of being assembled with a machine or a series of different machines or with a tractor by the operator himself in so far as this equipment is not a spare part or a tool
    [DIRECTIVE 98/37/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL]

    Параллельные тексты EN-RU

    3. The following are excluded from the scope of this Directive:

    3. Из области применения данной Директивы исключаются:

    — machinery whose only power source is directly applied manual effort, unless it is a machine used for lifting or lowering loads,

    - машинное оборудование, для которых источником энергии является исключительно непосредственное применение ручной силы, за исключением механизмов для подъема и опускания грузов;

    — machinery for medical use used in direct contact with patients,

    - медицинские приборы;

    — special equipment for use in fairgrounds and/or amusement parks,

    - специальное оборудование для использования в аттракционах и/или парках для развлечений;

    — steam boilers, tanks and pressure vessels,

    - паровые котлы, резервуары и сосуды под давлением;

    — machinery specially designed or put into service for nuclear purposes which, in the event of failure, may result in an emission of radioactivity,

    - машинное оборудование, специально сконструированное или используемое в атомной отрасли, которые в случае аварии могут привести к выделению радиоактивных веществ;

    — radioactive sources forming part of a machine,

    - радиоактивные источники, составляющие часть машин;

    — firearms,

    - стрелковое оружие;

    — storage tanks and pipelines for petrol, diesel fuel, inflammable liquids and dangerous substances,

    - емкости для хранения или трубопроводы для бензина, дизельного топлива, огнеопасных жидкостей и опасных веществ;

    — means of transport, i.e. vehicles and their trailers intended solely for transporting passengers by air or on road, rail or water networks, as well as means of transport in so far as such means are designed for transporting goods by air, on public road or rail networks or on water. Vehicles used in the mineral extraction industry shall not be excluded,

    - транспортные средства, т.е. средства перевозки и их прицепы, предназначенные исключительно для перевозки пассажиров по воздуху, автодороге, железной дороге, или водными путями, а также транспортные средства, сконструированные для транспортировки грузов по воздуху, по общедоступным дорогам, железным дорогам или водным путям. Средства транспортировки, используемые в горнодобывающей промышленности, не исключаются из области применения настоящей Директивы;

    — seagoing vessels and mobile offshore units together with equipment on board such vessels or units,

    - морские суда и мобильные береговые агрегаты вместе с оборудованием на борту, такие как танки или установки;

    — cableways, including funicular railways, for the public or private transportation of persons,

    - канатные дороги, включая фуникулерные железные дороги для общественного или частного пользования, предназначенные для транспортировки людей;

    — agricultural and forestry tractors, as defined in Article 1(1) of Directive 74/150/EEC (1),

    (1) Council Directive 74/150/EEC of 4 March 1974 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the type-approval of wheeled agricultural or forestry tractors (OJ L 84, 28.3.1974, p. 10). Directive as last amended by Decision 95/1/EC, Euratom, ECSC (OJ L 1.1.1995, p. 1).

    -сельскохозяйственные и лесные тракторы, подпадающие под определение статьи 1 (1) Директивы Совета 74/150/ЕЭС(1);

    (1) Директива Совета 74/150/ЕЭС от 4 марта 1974 г. по сближению законодательных актов Государств-членов, относящихся к одобрению типов колесных сельскохозяйственных или лесных тракторов (Официальный журнал Европейских сообществ № L 84, 28.3.1974 г., стр.10). Директива, измененная последний раз Решением 95/1/ЕЭС, Евроатом, ECSC (Официальный журнал Европейских сообществ № L 1/1/1995 г., стр 1)

    — machines specially designed and constructed for military or police purposes,

    - машины, специально сконструированные и созданные для военных и полицейских целей;

    — lifts which permanently serve specific levels of buildings and constructions, having a car moving between guides which are rigid and inclined at an angle of more than 15 degrees to the horizontal and designed for the transport of:
    (i) persons;
    (ii) persons and goods;
    (iii) goods alone if the car is accessible, that is to say, a person may enter it without difficulty, and fitted with controls situated inside the car or within reach of a person inside,

    - лифты и подъемные устройства, постоянно обслуживающие определенные уровни зданий и конструкций, имеющие транспортную тележку, движущуюся между жесткими направляющими, которые имеют угол наклона более 15 градусов к горизонтальной поверхности и сконструированы для транспортировки:
    (i) людей;
    (ii) людей и имущества;
    (iii) только имущества, в том случае, если кабина лифта открыта, т.е. человек может легко войти в такое транспортное средство и манипулировать средствами управления, находящимися внутри кабины или в пределах досягаемости для человека;

    — means of transport of persons using rack and pinion rail mounted vehicles,

    - транспортные средства для перевозки людей, с использованием зубчатых или реечных рельс, по которым перемещается транспортные средства;

    — mine winding gear,

    - шахтные канатные подъемные устройства;

    — theatre elevators,

    - театральные подъемники;

    — construction site hoists intended for lifting persons or persons and goods.

    - строительные подъемники, предназначенные для подъема людей или людей и грузов.

    4. Where, for machinery or safety components, the risks referred to in this Directive are wholly or partly covered by specific Community Directives, this Directive shall not apply, or shall cease to apply, in the case of such machinery or safety components and of such risks on the implementation of these specific Directives.

    4. Когда для машинного оборудования и компонентов безопасности риски, определенные в настоящей Директиве, полностью или частично покрываются специальными Директивами Сообщества, настоящая Директива не применяется или прекращает свое действие, такое машинное оборудование и компоненты безопасности и такие риски подпадают под действие этих специальных Директив.

    5. Where, for machinery, the risks are mainly of electrical origin, such machinery shall be covered exclusively by Directive 73/23/EEC (2).

    (2) Council Directive 73/23/EEC of 19 February 1973 on the harmonisation of the laws of Member States relating to electrical equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits (OJ L 77, 26.3.1973, p. 29). Directive as last amended by Directive 93/68/EEC (OJ L 220, 30.8.1993, p. 1).

    5. Когда риски применения машинного оборудования связаны с электрическими источниками, то такое оборудование охватываются исключительно Директивой 73/23/ЕЭС(2).

    (2) Директива Совета 73/23/ЕЭС/ от 19 февраля 1973 года о гармонизации законов Государств-Участников в отношении электрооборудования, предназначенного для использования в условиях определенных пределов напряжения (Официальный журнал Европейских сообществ № L 77, 26.03.1973, стр. 29). Директива с последней поправкой Директивой 93/68/ЕЭС (Официальный журнал Европейских сообществ № L 220, 30.08.1993, стр.1).

    Article 2
    1. Member States shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that machinery or safety components covered by this Directive may be placed on the market and put into service only if they do not endanger the health or safety of persons and, where appropriate, domestic animals or property, when properly installed and maintained and used for their intended purpose.

    Статья 2
    1. Государства - члены должны предпринимать все необходимые меры для обеспечения того, чтобы машинное оборудование или компоненты безопасности, попадающие под действие настоящей Директивы, поставлялись на рынок и вводились в эксплуатацию, только если они не составляют угрозу для здоровья и безопасности людей и домашних животных, или имуществу при условии надлежащей установки и обслуживания, а также использования по прямому назначению.

    2. This Directive shall not affect Member States’ entitlement to lay down, in due observance of the Treaty, such requirements as they may deem necessary to ensure that persons and in particular workers are protected when using the machinery or safety components in question, provided that this does not mean that the machinery or safety components are modified in a way not specified in the Directive.

    2. Настоящая Директива не ограничивает права Государств - членов устанавливать при должном соблюдении Договора такие требования, которые они посчитают необходимыми для обеспечения защиты людей, особенно работников, при использовании машинного оборудования или компонентов безопасности, при условии, что модификация такого машинного оборудования и компонентов безопасности была произведена в соответствии с положениями настоящей Директивы.

    3. At trade fairs, exhibitions, demonstrations, etc., Member States shall not prevent the showing of machinery or safety components which do not conform to the provisions of this Directive, provided that a visible sign clearly indicates that such machinery or safety components do not conform and that they are not for sale until they have been brought into conformity by the manufacturer or his authorised representative established in the Community. During demonstrations, adequate safety measures shall be taken to ensure the protection of persons.

    3. На торговых ярмарках, выставках, демонстрациях и т.п. Государства - члены не должны препятствовать демонстрации машинного оборудования или компонентов безопасности, которые не соответствуют положениям настоящей Директивы, при условии, что видимый знак четко указывает, что такое машинное оборудование или компоненты безопасности не соответствуют данной Директиве, и что они не предназначаются для продажи до тех пор, пока изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе не приведет их в полное соответствие с Директивой. Во время демонстраций должны приниматься адекватные меры для обеспечения безопасности граждан.

    Article 3
    Machinery and safety components covered by this Directive shall satisfy the essential health and safety requirements set out in Annex I.

    Статья 3
    Машинное оборудование, а также компоненты безопасности, относящиеся к области действия настоящей Директивы, должны полностью удовлетворять основным требованиям по обеспечению здоровья и безопасности, изложенным в Приложении 1.

    Article 4
    1. Member States shall not prohibit, restrict or impede the placing on the market and putting into service in their territory of machinery and safety components which comply with this Directive.

    Статья 4
    1. Государства - члены не должны запрещать, ограничивать или препятствовать поставке на рынок машинного оборудования, а также компонентов безопасности, которые соответствуют
    требованиям настоящей Директивы.

    2. Member States shall not prohibit, restrict or impede the placing on the market of machinery where the manufacturer or his authorised representative established in the Community declares in accordance with point B of Annex II that it is intended to be incorporated into machinery or assembled with other machinery to constitute machinery covered by this Directive, except where it can function independently.

    ‘Interchangeable equipment’, as referred to in the third indent of Article 1(2)(a), must in all cases bear the CE marking and be accompanied by the EC declaration of conformity referred to in Annex II, point A.

    2. Государства - члены не должны запрещать, ограничивать или препятствовать поставке на рынок машинного оборудования, если изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе заявляет в соответствии с Приложением II B, что они предназначены для включения в машинное оборудование или компоноваться с другим оборудованием, так, что в соединении они составят машинное оборудование, отвечающее требованиям настоящей Директивы, за исключением тех случаев, когда они могут функционировать независимо.

    "Взаимозаменяемое оборудование" в смысле третьего абзаца с черточкой в Статье 1 (2) (a) должно во всех случаях иметь маркировку "СЕ" и сопровождаться декларацией соответствия, определенной в Приложении II, пункте А.

    3. Member States may not prohibit, restrict or impede the placing on the market of safety components as defined in Article 1(2) where they are accompanied by an EC declaration of conformity by the manufacturer or his authorised representative established in the Community as referred to in Annex II, point C.

    3. Государства - члены не имеют права запрещать, ограничивать или препятствовать распространению на рынке компонентов безопасности, определенных Статьей 1 (2), если эти компоненты сопровождаются декларацией соответствия ЕС, заявленной изготовителем или его уполномоченным представителем в Сообществе, как определено в Приложении II, пункте С.

    Article 5
    1. Member States shall regard the following as conforming to all the provisions of this Directive, including the procedures for checking the conformity provided for in Chapter II:
    — machinery bearing the CE marking and accompanied by the EC declaration of conformity referred to in Annex II, point A,
    — safety components accompanied by the EC declaration of conformity referred to in Annex II, point C.

    Статья 5
    1. Государства - члены должны считать нижеследующее соответствующим всем положениям настоящей Директивы, включая процедуры проверки соответствия, предусмотренной в Главе II:
    - машинное оборудование, имеющее маркировку "СЕ" и сопровождаемое декларацией соответствия ЕС, как указано в Приложении II, пункте A;
    - компоненты безопасности, сопровождаемые декларацией соответствия ЕС, как указано в Приложении II, пункте C.

    При отсутствии гармонизированных стандартов Государства - члены должны предпринимать любые меры, которые они сочтут необходимыми, для привлечения внимания заинтересованных сторон к существующим национальным техническим стандартам и спецификациям, которые считаются важными или относятся к выполнению основных требований по обеспечению здоровья и безопасности в соответствии с Приложением 1.

    2. Where a national standard transposing a harmonised standard, the reference for which has been published in the Official Journal of the European Communities, covers one or more of the essential safety requirements, machinery or safety components constructed in accordance with this standard shall be presumed to comply with the relevant essential requirements.
    Member States shall publish the references of national standards transposing harmonised standards.

    2. В тех случаях, когда национальный стандарт, заменяющий гармонизированный стандарт, ссылка на который была опубликована в Официальном журнале Европейских сообществ, покрывает одно или несколько основных требований безопасности, машинное оборудование или компоненты безопасности, сконструированные в соответствии с таким стандартом, должны считаться соответствующими основным требованиям.
    Государства - члены должны публиковать ссылки на национальные стандарты, заменяющие гармонизированные стандарты.

    3. Member States shall ensure that appropriate measures are taken to enable the social partners to have an influence at national level on the process of preparing and monitoring the harmonised standards.

    3. Государства - члены должны обеспечивать принятие необходимых мер для того, чтобы их социальные партнеры получали возможность влиять на национальном уровне на процессы подготовки и отслеживания гармонизированных стандартов.

    Article 6
    1. Where a Member State or the Commission considers that the harmonised standards referred to in Article 5(2) do not entirely satisfy the essential requirements referred to in Article 3, the Commission or the Member State concerned shall bring the matter before the committee set up under Directive 83/189/EEC, giving the reasons therefor. The committee shall deliver an opinion without delay.
    Upon receipt of the committee’s opinion, the Commission shall inform the Member States whether or not it is necessary to withdraw those standards from the published information referred to in Article 5(2).

    Статья 6
    1. В случае, если Государство - член или Комиссия считают, что гармонизированные стандарты, рассмотренные в Статье 5 (2), не полностью соответствуют основным требованиям, определенным в Статье 3, Комиссия или заинтересованное Государство - член должны поставить этот вопрос на рассмотрение комитета, созданного в соответствии с Директивой 83/189/ЕЭС, обосновав причины такого обращения. Комитет должен безотлагательно вынести решение.
    После получения такого решения комитета Комиссия должна информировать Государства – члены, необходимо или нет отозвать эти стандарты из опубликованной информации, определенной в Статье 5 (2).

    2. A standing committee shall be set up, consisting of representatives appointed by the Member States and chaired by a representative of the Commission.

    The standing committee shall draw up its own rules of procedure.

    Any matter relating to the implementation and practical application of this Directive may be brought before the standing committee, in accordance with the following procedure:

    The representative of the Commission shall submit to the committee a draft of the measures to be taken. The committee shall deliver its opinion on the draft, within a time limit which the chairman may lay down according to the urgency of the matter, if necessary by taking a vote.

    The opinion shall be recorded in the minutes; in addition, each Member State shall have the right to ask to have its position recorded in the minutes.
    The Commission shall take the utmost account of the opinion delivered by the committee.
    It shall inform the committee of the manner in which its opinion has been taken into account.

    2. Должен быть создан постоянно действующий комитет, состоящий из представителей, назначенных Государствами – членами, и возглавляемый представителем Комиссии.

    Постоянно действующий комитет будет сам устанавливать порядок действий и процедуры.

    Любой вопрос, относящийся к выполнению и практическому применению настоящей Директивы, может быть поставлен на рассмотрение постоянно действующего комитета, в соответствии со следующими правилами:

    Представитель Комиссии должен представить комитету проект предполагаемых к принятию мер. Комитет должен выразить свое мнение по проекту за время, установленное председателем в соответствии со срочностью вопроса, при необходимости определяемого путем голосования.

    Это мнение должно быть зафиксировано в протоколе; кроме того, каждое Государство - член имеет право потребовать отразить свою позицию в протоколе. Комиссия должна максимально учитывать мнение, вынесенное комитетом.
    Она должна проинформировать комитет, каким образом было учтено его мнение.

    Article 7
    1. Where a Member State ascertains that:
    — machinery bearing the CE marking, or
    — safety components accompanied by the EC declaration of conformity, used in accordance with their intended purpose are liable to endanger the safety of persons, and, where appropriate, domestic animals or property, it shall take all appropriate measures to withdraw such machinery or safety components from the market, to prohibit the placing on the market, putting into service or use thereof, or to restrict free movement thereof.

    Member States shall immediately inform the Commission of any such measure, indicating the reason for its decision and, in particular, whether non-conformity is due to:
    (a) failure to satisfy the essential requirements referred to in Article 3;
    (b) incorrect application of the standards referred to in Article 5(2);
    (c) shortcomings in the standards themselves referred to in Article 5(2).

    Статья 7
    1. Если Государство - член устанавливает, что:
    - машинное оборудование, имеющее маркировку "СЕ", либо
    - компоненты безопасности, сопровождаемые декларацией соответствия ЕС, используемые в соответствии с их назначением, могут нести угрозу безопасности людям, и, если это имеет место, домашним животным или собственности, оно должно принять все необходимые меры для изъятия такого машинного оборудования, либо компонентов безопасности с рынка, запретить их поставку на рынок, ввод в эксплуатацию или использование, либо ограничить их свободное обращение.

    Государства - члены должны немедленно информировать Комиссию о любых подобных мерах, указать причины такого решения и, в особенности, информировать о том, явилось ли это несоответствие результатом:
    a) неспособности удовлетворить основным требованиям, определенным в Статье 3;
    b) неправильного применения стандартов, определенных в Статье 5 (п.2);
    c) недостатков самих стандартов, определенных в Статье 5 (п. 2).

    2. The Commission shall enter into consultation with the parties concerned without delay. Where the Commission considers, after this consultation, that the measure is justified, it shall immediately so inform the Member State which took the initiative and the other Member States. Where the Commission considers, after this consultation, that the action is unjustified, it shall immediately so inform the Member State which took the initiative and the manufacturer or his authorised representative established within the Community.

    Where the decision referred to in paragraph 1 is based on a shortcoming in the standards, and where the Member State at the origin of the decision maintains its position, the Commission shall immediately inform the committee in order to initiate the procedures referred to in Article 6(1).

    2. Комиссия должна безотлагательно провести консультацию с заинтересованными сторонами. В случае, если после проведения такой консультации, Комиссия полагает, что такая мера обоснована, она должна немедленно информировать об этом Государство - член, которое выдвинуло эту инициативу, а также остальные Государства - члены. Если Комиссия после проведения такой консультации полагает, что действия не были обоснованными, она немедленно извещает об этом Государство - член, проявившее инициативу, и изготовителя, либо его уполномоченного представителя в Сообществе.

    Если решение, указанное в параграфе 1, основано на недостатках в стандартах, и если Государство - член на основании такого решения сохраняет свои позиции, то Комиссия должна немедленно информировать комитет для того, чтобы начать процедуры, описанные в Статье 6 (п. 1).

    3. Where:
    — machinery which does not comply bears the CE marking,
    — a safety component which does not comply is accompanied by an EC declaration of conformity,
    the competent Member State shall take appropriate action against whom so ever has affixed the marking or drawn up the declaration and shall so inform the Commission and other Member States.

    3. Если:
    - машинное оборудование, не соответствующие требованиям, имеют маркировку "СЕ",
    - компоненты безопасности, не соответствующие требованиям, имеют декларацию соответствия ЕС,
    компетентное Государство - член должно начать соответствующие действия против любого, кто поставил маркировку, или составил декларацию, и должно проинформировать об этом Комиссию и другие Государства - члены.

    4. The Commission shall ensure that Member States are kept informed of the progress and outcome of this procedure.

    4. Комиссия должна обеспечить, чтобы Государства – члены были постоянно информированы о ходе и результатах данной процедуры.

    CHAPTER II
    CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES
    Article 8
    1. The manufacturer or his authorised representative established in the Community must, in order to certify that machinery and safety components are in conformity with this Directive, draw up for all machinery or safety components manufactured an EC declaration of conformity based on the model given in Annex II, point A or C as appropriate.

    In addition, for machinery alone, the manufacturer or his authorised representatives established in the Community must affix to the machine the CE marking.

    Глава II
    Процедуры оценки соответствия
    Статья 8
    1. Для подтверждения того, что машинное оборудование, а также компоненты безопасности соответствуют положениям настоящей Директивы, изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе должен составить декларацию ЕС о соответствии на произведенное машинное оборудование и компоненты безопасности по образцу, приведенному в Приложении II, соответственно пунктам A или C.

    Корме того, на машинное оборудование изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе должен нанести маркировку "СЕ" в соответствии со Статьей 10.

    2. Before placing on the market, the manufacturer, or his authorised representative established in the Community, shall:
    (a) if the machinery is not referred to in Annex IV, draw up the file provided for in Annex V;
    (b) if the machinery is referred to in Annex IV and its manufacturer does not comply, or only partly complies, with the standards referred to in Article 5(2) or if there are no such standards, submit an example of the machinery for the EC type-examination referred to in Annex VI;
    (c) if the machinery is referred to in Annex IV and is manufactured in accordance with the standards referred to in Article 5(2):
    — either draw up the file referred to in Annex VI and forward it to a notified body, which will acknowledge receipt of the file as soon as possible and keep it,
    — submit the file referred to in Annex VI to the notified body, which will simply verify that the standards referred to in Article 5(2) have been correctly applied and will draw up a certificate of adequacy for the file,
    — or submit the example of the machinery for the EC type-examination referred to in Annex VI.

    2. Перед поставкой на рынок изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе должен:
    (a) в случае, если машинное оборудование не указано в Приложении IV, составить документацию, предусмотренную Приложением V;
    (b) если машинное оборудование указано в Приложении IV, и их изготовитель не выполняет, либо выполняет лишь частично требования стандартов, упомянутых в Статье 5 (2), либо, если таких стандартов не существует, то представить образец машинного оборудования для его испытания ЕС, определенного в Приложении VI;
    (c) если машинное оборудование указано в Приложении IV и изготовлено в соответствии со стандартами, определенными в Статье 5 (п. 2):
    - либо составить документацию, указанную в Приложении VI, и передать ее нотифицированному органу, который подтверждает получение документации в возможно короткие сроки, а также сохраняет ее;
    - представить документацию, указанную в Приложении VI, нотифицированному органу, который просто проверит, что стандарты, упомянутые в Статье 5 (2), были применены правильно и составит сертификат соответствия по этой документации;
    - либо представить образец машинного оборудования для испытания ЕС типового образца, определенного в Приложении VI.

    3. Where the first indent of paragraph 2(c) of this Article applies, the provisions of the first sentence of paragraphs 5 and 7 of Annex VI shall also apply.

    Where the second indent of paragraph 2(c) of this Article applies, the provisions of paragraphs 5, 6 and 7 of Annex VI shall also apply.

    3. В тех случаях, когда может быть применен первый абзац параграфа 2 (с) этой Статьи должны также применяться положения первого предложения параграфов 5 и 7 Приложения VI.

    В тех случаях, когда может быть применен второй абзац пункта 2 (с), должны также применяться положения параграфов 5, 6 и 7 Приложения VI.

    4. Where paragraph 2(a) and the first and second indents of paragraph 2(c) apply, the EC declaration of conformity shall solely state conformity with the essential requirements of the Directive.

    Where paragraph 2(b) and the third indent of paragraph 2(c) apply, the EC declaration of conformity shall state conformity with the example that underwent EC type-examination.

    4. В тех случаях, когда применяется параграф 2 (а) и первый и второй абзацы параграфа 2 (c), декларация ЕС о соответствии должна удостоверить соответствие основным требованиям настоящей Директивы.

    В случае, когда применяется параграф 2 (b) и третий абзац параграфа 2 (c), декларация ЕС о соответствии должна удостоверить соответствие образцу, прошедшему испытание ЕС типового образца.

    5. Safety components shall be subject to the certification procedures applicable to machinery pursuant to paragraphs 2, 3 and 4. Furthermore, during EC type-examination, the notified body shall verify the suitability of the safety component for fulfilling the safety functions declared by the manufacturer.

    5.Компоненты безопасности должны подвергаться процедурам сертификации, применимым к машинному оборудованию в соответствии с параграфами 2, 3, 4. Более того, во время испытания ЕС типового образца нотифицированный орган должен проверить пригодность компонентов безопасности для выполнения тех функций безопасности, которые заявлены изготовителем.

    6. (a) Where the machinery is subject to other Directives concerning other aspects and which also provide for the affixing of the CE marking, the latter shall indicate that the machinery is also presumed to conform to the provisions of those other Directives.
    (b) However, where one or more of those Directives allow the manufacturer, during a transitional period, to choose which arrangements to apply, the CE marking shall indicate conformity only to the Directives applied by the manufacturer. In this case, particulars of the Directives applied, as published in the Official Journal of the European Communities, must be given in the documents, notices or instructions required by the directives and accompanying such machinery.

    6. (a) В тех случаях, когда машинное оборудование подпадает под действие Директив по другим аспектам, которые также предусматривают нанесение маркировки "СЕ", последняя указывает, что такое машинное оборудование соответствуют положениям этих прочих директив.
    (b) Тем не менее, когда одна или несколько таких Директив позволяют изготовителям в течение переходного периода выбирать, какие из положений применить, маркировка "СЕ" будет указывать на соответствие только тем Директивам, которые применялись изготовителем. В этом случае подробная информация о примененных Директивах, опубликованных в Официальном журнале Европейских сообществ, должен приводиться в документах, аннотациях или инструкциях, требуемых в соответствии с Директивами, и сопровождать такое машинное оборудование.

    7. Where neither the manufacturer nor his authorised representative established in the Community fulfils the obligations of paragraphs 1 to 6, these obligations shall fall to any person placing the machinery or safety component on the market in the Community. The same obligations shall apply to any person assembling machinery or parts thereof or safety components of various origins or constructing machinery or safety components for his own use.

    7. Если ни изготовитель, ни его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе не выполнят своих обязательств по предыдущим параграфам, то эти обязательства должны быть выполнены любыми лицами, поставляющими машинное оборудование или компоненты безопасности на рынок Сообщества. Такие же обязательства возлагаются на любые лица, осуществляющие сборку машинного оборудования, либо его частей или компонентов безопасности различного происхождения, либо создающие машинное оборудование или компоненты безопасности для собственного пользования.

    8. The obligations referred to in paragraph 7 shall not apply to persons who assemble with a machine or tractor interchangeable equipment as provided for in Article 1, provided that the parts are compatible and each of the constituent parts of the assembled machine bears the CE marking and is accompanied by the EC declaration of conformity.

    8. Обязательства, изложенные в параграфе 7, не применяются к лицам, которые собирают с машиной, механизмом или транспортным средством взаимозаменяемое оборудование, указанное в Статье 1, при условии, что эти части совместимы, и каждая из частей машины в сборе имеет маркировку "СЕ" и Декларацию ЕС о соответствии.

    Article 9
    1. Member States shall notify the Commission and the other Member States of the approved bodies which they have appointed to carry out the procedures referred to in Article 8 together with the specific tasks which these bodies have been appointed to carry out and the identification numbers assigned to them beforehand by the Commission.
    The Commission shall publish in the Official Journal of the European Communities a list of the notified bodies and their identification numbers and the tasks for which they have been notified. The Commission shall ensure that this list is kept up to date.

    Статья 9
    1. Государства - члены должны уведомить Комиссию и другие Государства - члены об утвержденных органах, которые назначаются для выполнения процедур, описанных в Статье 8, также как и для различных особых задач, которые этим органам предназначено выполнять, и об идентификационных номерах, предварительно присвоенных им Комиссией.

    В Официальном журнале Европейских сообществ Комиссия должна публиковать список таких нотифицированных органов и их идентификационные номера, а также задачи, для решения которых они предназначены. Комиссия должна обеспечить своевременность обновления списка.

    2. Member States shall apply the criteria laid down in Annex VII in assessing the bodies to be indicated in such notification. Bodies meeting the assessment criteria laid down in the relevant harmonised standards shall be presumed to fulfil those criteria.

    2. Государства - члены должны применять критерии, изложенные в Приложении VII, для определения органов, которые будут указаны в таких назначениях. Органы, удовлетворяющие критериям, изложенным в соответствующих гармонизированных стандартах, считаются соответствующими критериям.

    3. A Member State which has approved a body must withdraw its notification if it finds that the body no longer meets the criteria referred to in Annex VII. It shall immediately inform the Commission and the other Member States accordingly.

    3. Государство - член, утвердившее такой орган, должно отменить его назначение, если оно обнаружит, что он больше не соответствует критериям, изложенным в Приложении VII. Государство - член должно немедленно известить об этом Комиссию и другие Государства - члены.

    CHAPTER III
    CE MARKING
    Article 10
    1. The CE conformity marking shall consist of the initials ‘CE’. The form of the marking to be used is shown in Annex III.

    ГЛАВА III
    МАРКИРОВКА "СЕ"
    Статья 10
    1. Маркировка "СЕ" состоит из заглавных букв "СЕ". Форма маркировки, которая будет использоваться, указана в Приложении III.

    2. The CE marking shall be affixed to machinery distinctly and visibly in accordance with point 1.7.3 of Annex I.

    2. Маркировка "СЕ" должна наноситься на машинное оборудование четко, на видном месте в соответствии с пунктом 1.7.3. Приложения I.

    3. The affixing of markings on the machinery which are likely to deceive third parties as to the meaning and form of the CE marking shall be prohibited. Any other marking may be affixed to the machinery provided that the visibility and legibility of the CE marking is not thereby reduced.

    3. Нанесение маркировок на машинное оборудование таким образом, что это может ввести в заблуждение относительно значения и формы маркировки "СЕ", запрещено. Любые другие маркировки могут быть нанесены на машинное оборудование таким образом, чтобы не мешать видимости и различимости маркировки "СЕ".

    4. Without prejudice to Article 7:
    (a) where a Member State establishes that the CE marking has been affixed unduly, the manufacturer or his authorised representative established within the Community shall be obliged to make the product conform as regards the provisions concerning the CE marking and to end the infringement under the conditions imposed by the Member State;

    (b) where non-conformity continues, the Member State must take all appropriate measures to restrict or prohibit the placing on the market of the product in question or to ensure that it is withdrawn from the market in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article 7.

    4. Без ограничения применения Статьи 7:
    (a) если Государство - член устанавливает, что маркировка "СЕ" была нанесена неправильно, изготовитель или его уполномоченный представитель в Сообществе будет обязан привести продукцию в соответствии с положениями, касающимися маркировки "СЕ" и положить конец нарушениям на условиях, установленных Государством - членом;

    (b) если такое несоответствие будет продолжаться, то Государство - член должно принять все соответствующие меры для ограничения или запрещения поставки на рынок такой продукции, либо обеспечить изъятие ее с рынка в соответствии с процедурами, изложенными в Статье 7.

    CHAPTER IV
    FINAL PROVISIONS
    Article 11
    Any decision taken pursuant to this Directive which restricts the placing on the market and putting into service of machinery or a safety component shall state the exact grounds on which it is based. Such a decision shall be notified as soon as possible to the party concerned, who shall at the same time be informed of the legal remedies available to him under the laws in force in the Member State concerned and of the time limits to which such remedies are subject.

    ГЛАВА IV
    ЗАКЛЮЧИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЯ
    Статья 11
    Любое решение, принятое в исполнение настоящей Директивы, ограничивающее поставку на рынок и ввод в эксплуатацию машинного оборудования или компонентов безопасности, должно указывать точные причины, на которых оно основано. Такое решение должно быть по возможности быстро доведено до сведения заинтересованных сторон, их также следует проинформировать о законных мерах, которые могут быть предприняты по действующему законодательству в соответствующем Государстве - члене и о сроках, в которые данные меры применяются.

    Article 12
    The Commission will take the necessary steps to have information on all the relevant decisions relating to the management of this Directive made available.

    Статья 12
    Комиссия предпримет все необходимые шаги для получения информации по всем соответствующим решениям, касающимся применения и распространения настоящей Директивы.

    Article 13
    1. Member States shall communicate to the Commission the texts of the provisions of national law which they adopt in the field governed by this Directive.

    2. The Commission shall, before 1 January 1994, examine the progress made in the standardisation work relating to this Directive and propose any appropriate measures.

    Статья 13
    1. Государства - члены должны передать Комиссии тексты положений национальных законодательных актов, принимаемых в сфере, определяемой настоящей Директивой.

    2. Комиссия должна до 1 января 1994 г. изучить развитие работ по стандартизации, относящиеся к области действия настоящей Директивы и предложить любые целесообразные меры.

    Тематики

    EN

     

    машины
    оборудование
    —
    [Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва]

    машины
    Машина представляет собой аппарат, использующий или применяющий механическую энергию, состоящий из нескольких частей — каждая со своими определенными функциями, которые вместе выполняют некоторые виды работ. Для целей анализа это понятие включает отдельные машины или наборы машин. См. Машины и оборудование (МСО)
    [ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

    Тематики

    Синонимы

    EN

     

    машины и оборудование
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    машины и оборудование
    МСО
    Часть основных фондов компании (предприятия), которая включает устройства, преобразующие энергию, материалы и информацию. В аналитической и оценочной практике в общее понятие М. и о. включаются отдельно оцениваемые установки, машины, оборудование и транспортные средства, подразделяемые на виды, а каждый вид – на марки (последним термином для краткости можно обозначать разные модели и модификации машины). Разные марки машин одного вида используются для одних и тех же целей: они способны производить одну и ту же продукцию, выполнять одни и те же работы или оказывать одни и те же услуги ( в противном случае их надо относить в другому виду машин), а следовательно, «взаимозаменяемы» и являются товарами, конкурирующими между собой на рынке Рынок машин каждого вида делится на первичный (новые М..) и вторичный (бывшие в эксплуатации), для которых применяются разные оценочные приемы и инструменты.. М.и о. являются главным объектом инвестирования при разработке и реализации инвестиционного проекта, и, соответственно, одним из основных элементов оценки инвестиционных проектов. Важно, что в отличие от ценных бумаг, акций, М.и о. являются объектами реальных инвестиций, а не финансовых инвестиций.
    [ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

    EN

    machinery
    A group of parts or machines arranged to perform a useful function. (Source: MGH)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    Синонимы

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    механизм
    Совокупность подвижно соединённых звеньев, совершающих под действием приложенных сил заранее определённые целесообразные движения
    [Терминологический словарь по строительству на 12 языках (ВНИИИС Госстроя СССР)]

    машины, механизмы
    Совокупность связанных между собой частей и устройств, как минимум одно из которых движется, имеет соответствующий привод, органы управления и энергетические узлы, соединенные вместе для определенного применения, например для обработки, переработки, производства, транспортирования или упаковки материалов.
    Термины «машина» и «механизм» также распространяются на совокупность машин, которые размещаются и управляются таким образом, чтобы функционировать как единое целое.
    Примечание
    В приложении А приведено общее схематическое изображение машины.
    [ ГОСТ Р ИСО 12100-1:2007]

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    оборудование
    Совокупность связанных между собой частей или устройств, из которых по крайней мере одно движется, а также элементы привода, управления и энергетические узлы, которые предназначены для определенного применения, в частности для обработки, производства, перемещения или упаковки материала. К термину «оборудование» относят также машину и совокупность машин, которые так устроены и управляемы, что они функционируют как единое целое для достижения одной и той же цели.
    [ГОСТ ЕН 1070-2003]

    оборудование
    -
    [IEV number 151-11-25 ]

    оборудование
    Оснащение, материалы, приспособления, устройства, механизмы, приборы, инструменты и другие принадлежности, используемые в качестве частей электрической установки или в соединении с ней.
    [ ГОСТ Р МЭК 60204-1-2007]

    EN

    equipment
    single apparatus or set of devices or apparatuses, or the set of main devices of an installation, or all devices necessary to perform a specific task
    NOTE – Examples of equipment are a power transformer, the equipment of a substation, measuring equipment.
    [IEV number 151-11-25 ]

    equipment
    material, fittings, devices, components, appliances, fixtures, apparatus, and the like used as part of, or in connection with, the electrical equipment of machines
    [IEC 60204-1-2006]

    FR

    équipement, m
    matériel, m
    appareil unique ou ensemble de dispositifs ou appareils, ou ensemble des dispositifs principaux d'une installation, ou ensemble des dispositifs nécessaires à l'accomplissement d'une tâche particulière
    NOTE – Des exemples d’équipement ou de matériel sont un transformateur de puissance, l’équipement d’une sous-station, un équipement de mesure.
    [IEV number 151-11-25]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    организационный аппарат
    —
    [ http://www.iks-media.ru/glossary/index.html?glossid=2400324]

    Тематики

    • электросвязь, основные понятия

    EN

    3.26 машины (machinery): Устройство, состоящее из соединенных между собой частей или компонентов, по крайней мере, один из которых движется, с соответствующими исполнительными механизмами, силовыми цепями и цепями управления и т.д., объединенных вместе в целях конкретного применения, в частности, для обработки, переработки, перемещения или упаковки материала (материал означает эквивалент вещества или изделия).

    Термин «машины» одновременно означает совокупность машин и механизмов, которые для достижения одной и той же цели установлены и управляются таким образом, что они функционируют как единое целое.

    Источник: ГОСТ Р ЕН 1127-2-2009: Взрывоопасные среды. Взрывозащита и предотвращение взрыва. Часть 2. Основополагающая концепция и методология (для подземных выработок)

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > machinery

  • 11 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 12 Creativity

       Put in this bald way, these aims sound utopian. How utopian they areor rather, how imminent their realization-depends on how broadly or narrowly we interpret the term "creative." If we are willing to regard all human complex problem solving as creative, then-as we will point out-successful programs for problem solving mechanisms that simulate human problem solvers already exist, and a number of their general characteristics are known. If we reserve the term "creative" for activities like discovery of the special theory of relativity or the composition of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony, then no example of a creative mechanism exists at the present time. (Simon, 1979, pp. 144-145)
       Among the questions that can now be given preliminary answers in computational terms are the following: how can ideas from very different sources be spontaneously thought of together? how can two ideas be merged to produce a new structure, which shows the influence of both ancestor ideas without being a mere "cut-and-paste" combination? how can the mind be "primed," so that one will more easily notice serendipitous ideas? why may someone notice-and remember-something fairly uninteresting, if it occurs in an interesting context? how can a brief phrase conjure up an entire melody from memory? and how can we accept two ideas as similar ("love" and "prove" as rhyming, for instance) in respect of a feature not identical in both? The features of connectionist AI models that suggest answers to these questions are their powers of pattern completion, graceful degradation, sensitization, multiple constraint satisfaction, and "best-fit" equilibration.... Here, the important point is that the unconscious, "insightful," associative aspects of creativity can be explained-in outline, at least-by AI methods. (Boden, 1996, p. 273)
       There thus appears to be an underlying similarity in the process involved in creative innovation and social independence, with common traits and postures required for expression of both behaviors. The difference is one of product-literary, musical, artistic, theoretical products on the one hand, opinions on the other-rather than one of process. In both instances the individual must believe that his perceptions are meaningful and valid and be willing to rely upon his own interpretations. He must trust himself sufficiently that even when persons express opinions counter to his own he can proceed on the basis of his own perceptions and convictions. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 58)
       he average level of ego strength and emotional stability is noticeably higher among creative geniuses than among the general population, though it is possibly lower than among men of comparable intelligence and education who go into administrative and similar positions. High anxiety and excitability appear common (e.g. Priestley, Darwin, Kepler) but full-blown neurosis is quite rare. (Cattell & Butcher, 1970, p. 315)
       he insight that is supposed to be required for such work as discovery turns out to be synonymous with the familiar process of recognition; and other terms commonly used in the discussion of creative work-such terms as "judgment," "creativity," or even "genius"-appear to be wholly dispensable or to be definable, as insight is, in terms of mundane and well-understood concepts. (Simon, 1989, p. 376)
       From the sketch material still in existence, from the condition of the fragments, and from the autographs themselves we can draw definite conclusions about Mozart's creative process. To invent musical ideas he did not need any stimulation; they came to his mind "ready-made" and in polished form. In contrast to Beethoven, who made numerous attempts at shaping his musical ideas until he found the definitive formulation of a theme, Mozart's first inspiration has the stamp of finality. Any Mozart theme has completeness and unity; as a phenomenon it is a Gestalt. (Herzmann, 1964, p. 28)
       Great artists enlarge the limits of one's perception. Looking at the world through the eyes of Rembrandt or Tolstoy makes one able to perceive aspects of truth about the world which one could not have achieved without their aid. Freud believed that science was adaptive because it facilitated mastery of the external world; but was it not the case that many scientific theories, like works of art, also originated in phantasy? Certainly, reading accounts of scientific discovery by men of the calibre of Einstein compelled me to conclude that phantasy was not merely escapist, but a way of reaching new insights concerning the nature of reality. Scientific hypotheses require proof; works of art do not. Both are concerned with creating order, with making sense out of the world and our experience of it. (Storr, 1993, p. xii)
       The importance of self-esteem for creative expression appears to be almost beyond disproof. Without a high regard for himself the individual who is working in the frontiers of his field cannot trust himself to discriminate between the trivial and the significant. Without trust in his own powers the person seeking improved solutions or alternative theories has no basis for distinguishing the significant and profound innovation from the one that is merely different.... An essential component of the creative process, whether it be analysis, synthesis, or the development of a new perspective or more comprehensive theory, is the conviction that one's judgment in interpreting the events is to be trusted. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 59)
       In the daily stream of thought these four different stages [preparation; incubation; illumination or inspiration; and verification] constantly overlap each other as we explore different problems. An economist reading a Blue Book, a physiologist watching an experiment, or a business man going through his morning's letters, may at the same time be "incubating" on a problem which he proposed to himself a few days ago, be accumulating knowledge in "preparation" for a second problem, and be "verifying" his conclusions to a third problem. Even in exploring the same problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it, while it is consciously employed in preparing for or verifying another aspect. (Wallas, 1926, p. 81)
       he basic, bisociative pattern of the creative synthesis [is] the sudden interlocking of two previously unrelated skills, or matrices of thought. (Koestler, 1964, p. 121)
        11) The Earliest Stages in the Creative Process Involve a Commerce with Disorder
       Even to the creator himself, the earliest effort may seem to involve a commerce with disorder. For the creative order, which is an extension of life, is not an elaboration of the established, but a movement beyond the established, or at least a reorganization of it and often of elements not included in it. The first need is therefore to transcend the old order. Before any new order can be defined, the absolute power of the established, the hold upon us of what we know and are, must be broken. New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive that world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." (Ghiselin, 1985, p. 4)
       New life comes always from outside our world, as we commonly conceive our world. This is the reason why, in order to invent, one must yield to the indeterminate within him, or, more precisely, to certain illdefined impulses which seem to be of the very texture of the ungoverned fullness which John Livingston Lowes calls "the surging chaos of the unexpressed." Chaos and disorder are perhaps the wrong terms for that indeterminate fullness and activity of the inner life. For it is organic, dynamic, full of tension and tendency. What is absent from it, except in the decisive act of creation, is determination, fixity, and commitment to one resolution or another of the whole complex of its tensions. (Ghiselin, 1952, p. 13)
       [P]sychoanalysts have principally been concerned with the content of creative products, and with explaining content in terms of the artist's infantile past. They have paid less attention to examining why the artist chooses his particular activity to express, abreact or sublimate his emotions. In short, they have not made much distinction between art and neurosis; and, since the former is one of the blessings of mankind, whereas the latter is one of the curses, it seems a pity that they should not be better differentiated....
       Psychoanalysis, being fundamentally concerned with drive and motive, might have been expected to throw more light upon what impels the creative person that in fact it has. (Storr, 1993, pp. xvii, 3)
       A number of theoretical approaches were considered. Associative theory, as developed by Mednick (1962), gained some empirical support from the apparent validity of the Remote Associates Test, which was constructed on the basis of the theory.... Koestler's (1964) bisociative theory allows more complexity to mental organization than Mednick's associative theory, and postulates "associative contexts" or "frames of reference." He proposed that normal, non-creative, thought proceeds within particular contexts or frames and that the creative act involves linking together previously unconnected frames.... Simonton (1988) has developed associative notions further and explored the mathematical consequences of chance permutation of ideas....
       Like Koestler, Gruber (1980; Gruber and Davis, 1988) has based his analysis on case studies. He has focused especially on Darwin's development of the theory of evolution. Using piagetian notions, such as assimilation and accommodation, Gruber shows how Darwin's system of ideas changed very slowly over a period of many years. "Moments of insight," in Gruber's analysis, were the culminations of slow long-term processes.... Finally, the information-processing approach, as represented by Simon (1966) and Langley et al. (1987), was considered.... [Simon] points out the importance of good problem representations, both to ensure search is in an appropriate problem space and to aid in developing heuristic evaluations of possible research directions.... The work of Langley et al. (1987) demonstrates how such search processes, realized in computer programs, can indeed discover many basic laws of science from tables of raw data.... Boden (1990a, 1994) has stressed the importance of restructuring the problem space in creative work to develop new genres and paradigms in the arts and sciences. (Gilhooly, 1996, pp. 243-244; emphasis in original)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Creativity

  • 13 charge

    tʃɑ:dʒ
    1. сущ.
    1) а) заряд charge of gunpowder ≈ пороховой заряд positive (negative) charge ≈ положительный (отрицательный) заряд б) амер. одна доза, инъекция наркотика;
    марихуана, особ. сигарета с марихуаной в) сл. заряд (имеющаяся или скопившаяся в человеке, художественном произведении и т. п. энергия) the deeply emotional charge of the drama ≈ огромный эмоциональный заряд драмы г) амер.;
    сл. возбуждение, приятное волнение He got a charge out of the game. ≈ Он почувствовал приятное возбуждение от игры. He was getting a charge out of being close to something big. ≈ Он испытывал приятное волнение, находясь рядом с чем-то большим. Syn: thrill, kick I
    1.
    2) допускаемая нагрузка, загрузка
    3) геральдика любой девиз, символ, фигура на геральдическом щите
    4) а) обязанности, ответственность;
    руководство He has charge of the home office. ≈ Он отвечает за главный офис. This ward of the hospital is in/under the charge of Dr. Green. ≈ Эта палата находится в ведении доктора Грина. Syn: commission
    1., trust
    1. responsibility, obligation, management, supervision б) забота, попечение, надзор, наблюдение (когда речь идет о человеке или животном) ;
    хранение (вещи) children in charge of a nurse ≈ дети под присмотром няни Mary was put in charge of the child. ≈ Мери поручили присматривать за ребенком. I hope you'll never become a charge on the public. ≈ Я надеюсь, что ты никогда не будешь просить милостыню. Syn: care
    1., custody, superintendence ∙ place in charge of put in charge of - take charge of give in charge
    5) а) подопечный young charges ≈ дети, находящиеся на попечении( у кого-л.) б) церк. паства
    6) а) указание, предписание;
    приказ;
    наказ Syn: precept, injunction, instruction, mandate
    1., order
    1., command
    1. б) юр. напутствие судьи присяжным в) церк. послание епископа к пастве
    7) а) цена;
    мн. расходы, издержки at his own charge ≈ на его собственный счет to make a charge ≈ сделать некоторые расходы to reverse( the) charges, to transfer( the) charges брит.≈ изменять цены exorbitant charge ≈ очень высокие цены reasonable charge ≈ разумная цена admission charge ≈ вступительный взнос service charge ≈ плата за обслуживание There will be no charge for installation. ≈ Установка будет осуществлена бесплатно. free of charge ≈ бесплатно, даром charges forward ≈ доставка за счет покупателя Syn: expense, cost
    1. б) занесение на счет
    8) налог
    9) а) обвинение to bring, level, make a charge ≈ предъявить обвинение to bring charges of forgery against smb. ≈ обвинить кого-л. в подделывании денег to concoct, cook up, fabricate, trump up a charge ≈ фабриковать обвинение They trumped up various charges against her. ≈ Они сфабриковали против нее целый ворох обвинений. to prove, substantiate a charge ≈ доказать обвинение to face a charge ≈ быть обвиненным в чем-либо;
    смело встречать обвинение to lay to smb.'s charge ≈ обвинять кого-л. to dismiss a charge, to throw out a charge ≈ отклонять обвинение, опровергать обвинение The judge dismissed all charges. ≈ Судья снял все обвинения. to drop, retract, withdraw a charge ≈ отказываться от обвинения to deny, refute, repudiate a charge ≈ отрицать обвинение baseless, fabricated, false, trumped-up charge ≈ лживое обвинение, сфабрикованное обвинение frivolous charge ≈ пустое, пустячное обвинение charge of murder ≈ обвинение в убийстве to be arrested on various charges ≈ быть арестованным на основании нескольких обвинений Syn: accusation б) (полиц. жаргон) обвиняемый One by one the 'charges' were brought in and set before him. ≈ Обвиняемых вводили одного за другим и ставили перед ним.
    10) а) воен. (стремительная) атака, наступление to lead a charge against, to make a charge against ≈ идти в атаку против кого-л. to fight off a charge, to repel a charge, to repulse a charge ≈ отражать атаку, отражать нападение, давать отпор bayonet charge ≈ штыковая атака cavalry charge ≈ кавалерийская атака infantry charge ≈ наступление пехоты б) атака, нападение (о крупных животных, игроках, напр., в футболе и т. п.) в) сигнал атаки a trumpet charge ≈ сигнал трубы к наступлению to sound the charge ≈ возвестить о начале наступления, дать сигнал к наступлению
    11) метал. шихта;
    колоша ∙ return to the charge
    2. гл.
    1) заряжать (оружие;
    аккумулятор) (with) The wire is charged with electricity. ≈ Этот провод под напряжением. The terrorists charged the bomb with an explosive substance. ≈ Террористы зарядили бомбу взрывчаткой. Syn: load
    2.
    2) а) нагружать;
    загружать (уголь в топку и т. п.) б) насыщать, наполнять (напр., воду минеральными веществами, воздух парами и т. д.) в) заполнять, наполнять, пронизывать;
    обременять The music is charged with excitement. ≈ Вся музыка проникнута трепетом. His poetry is charged with strength and feeling. ≈ Его поэзия блещет мощью и чувством. The stores of fact with which his memory was charged. ≈ Хранилище фактов, которыми была обременена его память.
    3) геральдика помещать на щите какой-л. символ
    4) поручать, давать поручение, возлагать( ответственность и т. п.) They chargeed him with the job of finding a new meeting place. ≈ Они поручили ему найти новое место для сборищ. to charge oneself with ≈ взять на себя заботу о чем-л., ответственность за что-л.
    5) а) указывать, предписывать;
    приказывать, требовать I charge you not to go. ≈ Я требую, чтобы вы остались. Syn: command
    2., order
    2., enjoin б) юр. напутствовать присяжных( о судье) в) наставлять паству (о епископе)
    6) а) назначать, запрашивать цену They charged us ten dollars for it. ≈ Они взяли с нас за это десять долларов. What do you charge for it? ≈ Сколько вы просите за это? Сколько это стоит? How much does the hotel charge for a room? ≈ Сколько стоит номер в этом отеле? to charge on ≈ взимать б) записывать в долг;
    записывать на чей-л. счет Charge the goods against/to my account. ≈ Запишите эти вещи на мой счет.
    7) а) порицать, осуждать;
    обвинять They charges him with armed robbery. ≈ Они обвиняют его в вооруженном ограблении. They were charged as being instigators. ≈ Им предъявили обвинение в подстрекательстве. Syn: blame
    2., censure
    2., accuse б) возлагать ответственность, приписывать charge her failure to negligence ≈ приписать неудачу ее халатности
    8) а) изготавливать( оружие) к бою б) воен. атаковать( особ. в конном строю) в) нападать, атаковать, набрасываться;
    напирать, наседать to charge at ≈ нападать на кого-л. You should have seen me run when that goat charged at me! ≈ Ты бы видел, как этот козел на меня побежал! to charge down ≈ кидаться к кому-л. When Mother returned from the hospital, the children charged down to meet her. ≈ Когда мама вернулась из больницы, дети ринулись ей навстречу. to charge into ≈ врываться ∙ Syn: attack
    2. ∙ charge against charge down charge off charge with нагрузка, загрузка;
    - * of surety( специальное) допускаемая нагрузка;
    - additional * (специальное) догрузка;
    - reactivity * (специальное) запас реактивности заряд - the emotional * of the drama эмоциональный заряд этой драмы сигарета с марихуаной приятное волнение, возбуждение;
    наслаждение, удовольствие;
    - to get a * out of smth. получать удовольствие от чего-л запись о выдаче книг абонементная запись (геральдика) фигура (техническое) шихта колоша (техническое) горючая смесь( горное) заряд шпура забота, попечение;
    надзор;
    хранение;
    - to be in * of иметь на попечении или на хранении;
    отвечать за( кого-л, что-л) преим. (американизм) быть на попечении, находиться на хранении;
    - I leave you in * of him я оставляю его на ваше попечение;
    - children in * of a nurse дети под присмотром няни;
    - I leave this in your * оставляю это вам на хранение;
    - to be in * находиться под арестом;
    - to give smb. in * передать кого-л. в руки полиции;
    - to give smb. * over smth. поручать кому-л. что-л.;
    отдать кому-л. всю власть над чем-л. лицо, состоящее на попечении;
    подопечный, питомец;
    - her little *s ее маленькие питомцы;
    - he became a public * заботу о нем взяло на себя общество( церковное) паства (разговорное) заключенный, арестант обязанности;
    ответственность;
    руководство;
    - to be in * заведовать, ведать;
    руководить;
    - I am in * of this office я заведую этим учреждением;
    - he is in sole * of the matter он несет единоличную ответственность за это дело;
    быть за старшего, стоять во главе;
    - who is in * here? (разговорное) кто здесь главный?, к кому здесь можно обратиться? дежурить, быть дежурным, нести дежурство;
    - officer in * дежурный офицер;
    быть в ведении;
    - this office is in my * это учреждение подчинено мне;
    - to put in * поставить во главе;
    - to have over-all * осуществлять общее руководство предписание;
    приказ;
    наказ;
    поручение;
    требование (юридическое) напутствование присяжных заседателей председателем суда( церковное) пастырское послание епископа обвинение;
    - to lay smth. to smb.'s * обвинять кого-л. в чем-л.;
    - to bring a * against smb. предъявлять кому-л. обвинение;
    - to be acquitted of the * быть оправданным;
    - he was arrested on a * of murder он был арестован по обвинению в убийстве;
    - what is the * against him? в чем он обвиняется? цена, плата;
    - free of * бесплатно;
    - no * for admission вход бесплатный;
    - * for admittance входная плата;
    - to be a * against smb. подлежать оплате кем-л. преим. pl расходы, издержки;
    - at one's own *(s) за свой счет;
    - he gave the banquet at his own * все расходы по банкету он взял на себя;
    - * forward расходы подлежат оплате грузополучателем;
    доставка за счет покупателя занесение на счет - the sum has been placed to your * сумма отнесена на ваш счет налог;
    сбор;
    начисление;
    - port *s портовые сборы;
    - there is a small * for registering the deed за регистрацию акта нужно уплатить небольшой сбор долговое обязательство, ипотека;
    обременение;
    дебет;
    - floating * краткосрочный государственный долг;
    - * sales продажа в кредит;
    - * file (несовременное) картотека книжных формуляров - * slip книжный формуляр (военное) атака;
    - to rush to the * броситься в атаку;
    - to return to the * возобновить атаку сигнал атаки;
    - to sound the * трубить атаку нападение наступление, нападение, атака нагружать, загружать;
    - the lorry was *d to the full грузовик был нагружен до предела обременять;
    - to * one's memory with trifles забивать голову пустяками насыщать;
    наполнять;
    пропитывать;
    пронизывать;
    - *d with electricity насыщенный электричеством;
    - the air was *d with steam в воздухе стоял пар;
    - he is always *d with energy and power он всегда полон энергии и силы наполнять (стакан) ;
    - * your glasses and drink to my health! налейте бокал и выпейте за мое здоровье! заряжать (оружие) поручать, вверять;
    вменять в обязанность;
    возлагать ответственность;
    - I am *d to give you this letter мне поручено передать вам это письмо;
    - he was *d with an important mission на него была возложена важная миссия;
    - he has *d me with his son он поручил мне своего сына;
    он оставил сына на мое попечение;
    - to * with individual responsibility возлагать личную ответственность;
    - to * oneself with smth. взять на себя заботу о чем-л предписывать, приказывать;
    требовать;
    предлагать;
    - I * you to open the door! приказываю вам открыть дверь!;
    - the watchmen were *d to remain at their posts караульным было приказано оставаться на своих постах;
    - his mother *d him to look out for his little brother мать велела ему присмотреть за братишкой;
    - I * you not to accept the gift я запрещаю вам принимать этот подарок( юридическое) обвинять;
    выдвигать или предъявлять обвинение;
    - to * smb. with a crime, to * a crime upon smb. обвинять кого-л в совершении преступления;
    - to * with murder обвинять в убийстве;
    - the crimes *d against them преступления, в которых они обвинялись;
    - we ought not to * what we cannot prove нельзя выдвигать бездоказательные обвинения;
    - to * that... (американизм) выдвигать обвинение в том, что... вменять в вину;
    возлагать ответственность;
    приписывать;
    - to * smb. with neglecting his duty обвинить кого-л в пренебрежении своими обязанностями;
    - to * a fault on smb. приписывать кому-л ошибку;
    возлагать на кого-л ответственность за ошибку назначать, запрашивать цену, плату;
    взимать;
    - to * a high price назначить высокую цену;
    - how much do you * for packing? сколько вы берете за упаковку? записывать в долг;
    относить или записывать на счет;
    (бухгалтерское) дебетовать;
    - to * to account поставить на счет;
    - * these goods to me запишите эту покупку на мой счет;
    счет за покупку пришлите мне;
    - shall I * it? прислать вам счет;
    - we shall * the loss against you убыток мы отнесем на ваш счет;
    - to * the public (американизм) относить за счет государства;
    - to * forward наложить платеж;
    взыскать наложенным платежом;
    - expenses *d forward с наложенным платежом за расходы (военное) атаковать;
    - our soldiers *d the enemy наши войска атаковали неприятеля нападать, атаковать, набрасываться;
    напирать, наседать;
    - the police *d the strikers полиция напала на стачечников;
    - the dog *d at me собака бросилась на меня;
    - the horses *d into the crowd лошади врезались в толпу;
    - our players * again and again наша команда снова и снова переходила в нападение газировать( воду) записывать выдачу книг, делать абонементную запись наводить, нацеливать( юридическое) напутствовать присяжных заседателей (геральдика) изображать на щите;
    - he *s three roses у него в гербе три золотые розы (разговорное) см. charge d'affaires account administration ~ плата за ведение счетов additional ~ доплата additional ~ надбавка additional management ~ дополнительные затраты на содержание управленческого аппарата administrative ~ административные расходы annual depreciation ~ годовая сумма начисленного износа ~ цена;
    pl расходы, издержки;
    at his own charge на его собственный счет;
    free of charge бесплатно;
    charges forward доставка за счет покупателя at no ~ бесплатно bank ~ банковские расходы bank ~ банковский комиссионный платеж bank ~ банковский сбор ~ обязанности;
    ответственность;
    I am in charge of this department этот отдел подчинен мне, я заведую этим отделом;
    to be in charge воен. быть за старшего, командовать be in ~ of быть на попечении be in ~ of иметь на попечении be in ~ of иметь на хранении be in ~ of находиться на хранении be in ~ of отвечать bring a ~ against предъявлять обвинение car hire ~ плата за прокат автомобиля card ~ оплата по карточке carriage ~ плата за перевозку carriage ~ стоимость перевозки carrying ~ процент, взимаемый брокерами за ссуду под ценные бумаги carrying ~ стоимость кредита при продаже товара в рассрочку carrying ~ стоимость хранения наличного товара carrying ~ стоимость хранения товара во фьючерсной торговле carrying ~ сумма, которую клиент платит брокеру при покупке ценных бумаг в кредит carrying ~ текущие расходы carrying ~ эксплуатационные расходы charge аргументация в исковом заявлении в опровержение предполагаемых доводов ответчика ~ воен. атаковать (особ. в конном строю) ~ взыскивать ~ вменять в обязанность ~ возлагать ответственность ~ возлагать расход ~ выдвигать обвинение ~ дебет ~ долговое обязательство ~ забота, попечение;
    надзор;
    хранение;
    children in charge of a nurse дети, порученные няне;
    a nurse in charge of children няня, которой поручена забота о детях ~ заведывание, руководство, попечение, ведение ~ заведывание ~ загружать ~ заключительное обращение судьи к присяжным ~ заключительное обращение судьи к присяжным заседателям ~ залоговое право ~ записывать в долг ~ записывать на дебет ~ запрашивать цену ~ лицо, находящееся на попечении ~ нагружать ~ назначать цену ~ начисление, начислять, сбор, налог, облагать ~ начислять сбор ~ обвинение ~ юр. обвинение ~ обвинять ~ обращение взыскания ~ обременение вещи, залоговое право ~ обременение вещи ~ юр. обязанность ~ обязательство ~ обязывать ~ юр. ответственность ~ относить на счет ~ письменная детализация требований стороны по делу ~ плата ~ попечение ~ поручать ~ поручение ~ предлагать ~ предписание ~ предписывать ~ предъявлять обвинение ~ пункт обвинения ~ расход ~ руководство ~ юр. заключительная речь судьи к присяжным ~ занесение на счет ~ записывать в долг ~ заряд ~ заряжать (оружие;
    аккумулятор) ~ лицо, состоящее на попечении;
    her little charges ее маленькие питомцы;
    young charges дети, находящиеся на (чьем-л.) попечении ~ нагружать;
    загружать;
    обременять (память) ;
    насыщать;
    наполнять (стакан вином при тосте) ~ нагрузка, загрузка;
    бремя ~ назначать цену, просить( for - за что-л.) ;
    they charged us ten dollars for it они взяли с нас за это десять долларов ~ налог ~ воен. нападение, атака (тж. перен.- в разговоре, споре) ;
    сигнал к атаке;
    to return to the charge возобновить атаку ~ юр. напутствовать присяжных (о судье) ~ обвинение;
    to lay to (smb.'s) charge обвинять (кого-л.) ~ обвинять;
    to charge with murder обвинять в убийстве ~ обязанности;
    ответственность;
    I am in charge of this department этот отдел подчинен мне, я заведую этим отделом;
    to be in charge воен. быть за старшего, командовать ~ церк. паства ~ поручать, вверять;
    to charge with an important mission давать важное поручение;
    to charge oneself (with smth.) взять на себя заботу (о чем-л.), ответственность (за что-л.) ~ церк. послание епископа к пастве ~ предписание;
    поручение;
    требование ~ предписывать;
    требовать (особ. о судье, епископе) ;
    I charge you to obey я требую, чтобы вы повиновались ~ сбор ~ тариф ~ требование ~ требовать оплату ~ требовать цену ~ цена;
    pl расходы, издержки;
    at his own charge на его собственный счет;
    free of charge бесплатно;
    charges forward доставка за счет покупателя ~ цена, назначать цену, расход, возлагать расход ~ цена ~ метал. шихта;
    колоша ~ d'affaires( pl charges d'affaires) фр. дип. поверенный в делах d'affaires: d'affaires: charge ~ поверенный в делах ~ for a call плата за телефонный разговор ~ for checking плата за проверку ~ of fraud обвинение в мошенничестве ~ on assets established by court order плата за фонды, установленная постановлением суда ~ поручать, вверять;
    to charge with an important mission давать важное поручение;
    to charge oneself (with smth.) взять на себя заботу (о чем-л.), ответственность (за что-л.) ~ to account относить на счет ~ to jury напутствие присяжных ~ to own capital относить на собственный капитал ~ поручать, вверять;
    to charge with an important mission давать важное поручение;
    to charge oneself (with smth.) взять на себя заботу (о чем-л.), ответственность (за что-л.) ~ обвинять;
    to charge with murder обвинять в убийстве ~ цена;
    pl расходы, издержки;
    at his own charge на его собственный счет;
    free of charge бесплатно;
    charges forward доставка за счет покупателя forward: charges ~ расходы подлежат оплате грузополучателем ~ забота, попечение;
    надзор;
    хранение;
    children in charge of a nurse дети, порученные няне;
    a nurse in charge of children няня, которой поручена забота о детях clearance ~ стоимость таможенной очистки COD ~ сбор за отправление наложенным платежом collection ~ затраты на инкассирование collection ~ затраты на сбор страховых взносов community ~ местный налог customs clearance ~ уплата таможенной пошлины customs formality ~ таможенная пошлина daily wagon-hire ~ суточная плата за аренду вагона delinquency ~ взимание просроченного платежа delinquency ~ пеня за задержку платежа delivery ~ плата за доставку demand ~ платеж по требованию deny the ~ отрицать обвинение deny: ~ отрицать;
    to deny the charge отвергать обвинение depositary's ~ плата за хранение в депозитарии detention ~ возмещение за простой судна сверх контрсталии dismiss the ~ отклонять обвинение dispatch ~ плата за отправку dispatching ~ стоимость отправки drop-off ~ плата за возврат контейнера dunning ~ взыскиваемый налог dunning ~ востребованный налог effluent ~ плата за выбросы в окружающую среду empty equipment handover ~ расходы на порожние перевозки express delivery ~ почт. сбор за срочную доставку extra ~ дополнительная плата fixed ~ постоянные затраты fixed ~ постоянные издержки fixed ~ финансовые платежи с фиксированными сроками уплаты flat ~ разовый платеж floating ~ краткосрочный государственный долг ~ цена;
    pl расходы, издержки;
    at his own charge на его собственный счет;
    free of charge бесплатно;
    charges forward доставка за счет покупателя free: ~ of charge безвозмездный ~ of charge бесплатно ~ of charge бесплатный;
    free of debt не имеющий долгов, задолженности ~ of charge бесплатный freight ~ плата за провоз this is left in my ~ and is not my own это оставлено мне на хранение, это не мое;
    to give (smb.) in charge передать (кого-л.) в руки полиции handling ~ транс. плата за обработку грузов handling ~ транс. плата за перевалку грузов handling ~ транс. плата за перегрузку handling ~ плата за погрузочно-разгрузочные работы ~ лицо, состоящее на попечении;
    her little charges ее маленькие питомцы;
    young charges дети, находящиеся на (чьем-л.) попечении ~ обязанности;
    ответственность;
    I am in charge of this department этот отдел подчинен мне, я заведую этим отделом;
    to be in charge воен. быть за старшего, командовать ~ предписывать;
    требовать (особ. о судье, епископе) ;
    I charge you to obey я требую, чтобы вы повиновались in ~ of ответственный за initial ~ первоначальный сбор issue ~ эмиссионный сбор land ~ налог с земельной собственности ~ обвинение;
    to lay to (smb.'s) charge обвинять (кого-л.) leasing ~ плата за аренду legal ~ судебная пошлина legal ~ судебный сбор loading ~ надбавка к тарифной ставке, компенсирующая расходы по страхованию loading ~ плата за погрузочные работы loading ~ плата за управление капиталом, внесенным в общий инвестиционный траст-фонд lowest ~ самая низкая плата maintenance ~ плата за техническое обслуживание minimum ~ минимальный тариф minimum ~ наименьшая плата за перевозку груза minimum utilization ~ минимальная плата за использование контейнера monthly licence ~ (MLC) ежемесячная плата за лицензию nonrecurring ~ разовый расход ~ забота, попечение;
    надзор;
    хранение;
    children in charge of a nurse дети, порученные няне;
    a nurse in charge of children няня, которой поручена забота о детях one-time ~ (OTC) разовый сбор OTC: OTC, one-time charge разовый сбор operating ~ текущий сбор overdraft ~ комиссионный сбор за предоставление кредита по текущему счету parking ~ плата за парковку penalty ~ штраф per diem ~ плата на основе суточных ставок per diem ~ суточный тариф prefer a ~ выдвигать обвинение prior ~ предварительный платеж protest ~ комиссионный платеж за оформление протеста векселя quarrying ~ плата за разработку карьера reduced ~ льготный тариф refrigerated vehicle ~ тариф за перевозки в авторефрижераторе refrigerator wagon ~ фрахт за перевозки в вагоне-рефрижераторе renewal ~ возобновительный взнос rent ~ плата за прокат rental ~ плата за прокат ~ воен. нападение, атака (тж. перен.- в разговоре, споре) ;
    сигнал к атаке;
    to return to the charge возобновить атаку road ~ дорожный сбор road maintenance ~ плата за содержание дорог sales ~ комиссионный сбор, уплачиваемый инвестором брокеру при покупке или продаже участия во взаимном инвестиционном фонде service ~ затраты на обслуживание service ~ плата за обслуживание service ~ расходы на обслуживание service ~ сбор за обслуживание service ~ тариф за обслуживание stand-by arrangement ~ затраты на содержание резервной мощности state ~ государственные расходы statutory ~ установленный платеж statutory ~ установленный сбор statutory ~ установленный тариф storage ~ плата за хранение storage ~ складские расходы street ~ неофициальный платеж take-off ~ сбор за взлет tax ~ начисление налога telephone ~ плата за телефонный разговор ~ назначать цену, просить (for - за что-л.) ;
    they charged us ten dollars for it они взяли с нас за это десять долларов this is left in my ~ and is not my own это оставлено мне на хранение, это не мое;
    to give (smb.) in charge передать (кого-л.) в руки полиции trade ~ почтовый сбор utilization ~ стоимость утилизации wagon demurrage ~ плата за простой вагона warehousing ~ складской сбор what do you ~ for it? сколько вы просите за это?, сколько это стоит? withdraw a ~ отказываться от обвинения ~ лицо, состоящее на попечении;
    her little charges ее маленькие питомцы;
    young charges дети, находящиеся на (чьем-л.) попечении

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > charge

  • 14 Memory

       To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)
       [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)
       The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)
       4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology
       If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)
       We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)
       The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)
       7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging
       The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)
       A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)
       Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....
       Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)
       When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....
       However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)
       Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)
       Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)
       The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Memory

  • 15 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

  • 16 set

    1. n комплект, набор; коллекция

    in sets — в комплектах, в наборах

    2. n сервиз
    3. n гарнитур

    twin set — гарнитур, состоящий из жакета и джемпера

    4. n комплект издания

    a set of Pravda — комплект «Правды»

    5. n серия, ряд

    set of diagrams — ряд диаграмм, снятых одновременно

    6. n совокупность
    7. n группа; состав

    a poor set of players — плохая команда, плохие игроки

    8. n набор, состав
    9. n компания, круг

    gambling set — картёжники, завсегдатаи игорных домов

    10. n банда, шайка
    11. n театр. кино декорация

    set designer — художник по декорациям; художник кинофильма

    12. n кино съёмочная площадка
    13. n спец. прибор, аппарат; установка, агрегат
    14. n приёмник
    15. n фигура; последовательность фигур

    test set — набор тестов; тестовая последовательность

    16. n завивка и укладка волос
    17. n сюита духовной музыки

    words set to music — слова, положенные на музыку

    18. n дор. брусчатка, каменная шашка
    19. n спорт. партия
    20. n спорт. сет
    21. n спорт. спорт. расстановка игроков
    22. n спорт. геол. свита
    23. n спорт. горн. оклад крепи
    24. n спорт. мат. множество
    25. n спорт. мат. семейство

    set of curves — семейство характеристик; семейство кривых

    26. n спорт. полигр. гарнитура шрифта
    27. n тк. общие очертания, линия

    general purpose shop set — комплект инструмента и оборудования ремонтной мастерской общего назначения

    28. n строение; конфигурация; сложение
    29. n тк. g
    30. n направление
    31. n направленность; тенденция
    32. n психол. направленность, установка
    33. n наклон, отклонение
    34. n тк. поэт. заход, закат

    set agoing — пустил в ход; пущенный в ход

    35. n музыкальный вечер
    36. n сад. молодой побег; завязь
    37. n с. -х. посадочный материал
    38. n с. -х. охот. стойка
    39. n с. -х. тех. разводка для пил, развод зубьев пилы, ширина развода
    40. n с. -х. тех. остаточная деформация
    41. n с. -х. тех. обжимка, державка
    42. n с. -х. полигр. толщина
    43. a неподвижный; застывший
    44. a определённый, твёрдо установленный, постоянный

    set wage — твёрдый оклад, постоянная заработная плата

    set on edge — устанавливать на ребро; установленный на ребро

    set solid — текст, набранный с постоянным интерлиньяжем

    set form — установленная форма; формуляр, бланк

    45. a неизменный, постоянный; незыблемый
    46. a шаблонный; стереотипный
    47. a установленный
    48. a заранее установленный, оговорённый
    49. a упрямый, настойчивый; упорный
    50. a умышленный, преднамеренный
    51. a разг. готовый, горящий желанием

    we were set for an early morning start — мы подготовились к тому, чтобы выступить рано утром

    52. a встроенный, прикреплённый
    53. v ставить, помещать, класть; положить, поставить

    set the limit — устанавливать предел; положить конец

    54. v обыкн. помещаться, располагаться

    a house set in a beautiful garden — дом, стоящий в прекрасном саду

    a little town set north of London — маленький городок, расположенный к северу от Лондона

    blue eyes set deep in a white face — голубые, глубоко посаженные глаза на бледном лице

    set up — помещать, ставить, класть

    set out — помещать, ставить, выставлять

    55. v сажать, усаживать
    56. v насаживать, надевать
    57. v вставлять
    58. v направлять; поворачивать
    59. v иметь направление, тенденцию

    public opinion is setting with him — общественное мнение за него, общественное мнение складывается в его пользу

    60. v подготавливать; снаряжать; приводить в состояние готовности

    I was all set for the talk — я готовился к этому разговору; я знал, что меня ждёт этот разговор

    set in order — приводить в порядок; исправлять

    61. v устанавливать, определять, назначать
    62. v диал. ирон. часто идти, быть к лицу

    do you think this bonnet sets me? — как вы думаете, идёт мне эта шляпка?

    a man set in authority — лицо, облечённое властью

    63. v редк. сидеть

    the jacket sets badly — жакет плохо устанавливать, регулировать

    64. v мор. пеленговать
    65. v стр. производить кладку
    66. программа поиска внеземного разума
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. express (adj.) especial; express; special; specific
    2. fast (adj.) fast; secure; tenacious; tight
    3. fixed (adj.) bent; certain; common; customary; decided; decisive; determined; established; firm; fixed; habitual; intent; resolute; solid; stable; stated; stipulated; usual
    4. little (adj.) borne; ineffectual; limited; little; mean; narrow; paltry; small
    5. predetermined (adj.) foreordained; predetermined; prefixed; prescribed; resolved
    6. ready (adj.) prepared; primed; ready
    7. rigid (adj.) immovable; obstinate; relentless; rigid; stiff; stubborn; unyielding
    8. settled (adj.) confirmed; entrenched; ingrained; inveterate; settled
    9. situated (adj.) located; placed; positioned; sited; situate; situated
    10. bearing (noun) address; air; bearing; comportment; demeanor; deportment; mien; port; presence
    11. collection (noun) assemblage; assortment; collection; kit; outfit; pack; series
    12. gang (noun) circle; clique; crowd; gang
    13. gift (noun) aptness; bump; faculty; flair; genius; gift; head; knack; nose; talent; turn
    14. group (noun) array; batch; battery; body; bunch; bundle; circle; clique; clot; clump; cluster; clutch; company; coterie; crowd; faction; group; knot; lot; organisation; organization; parcel; passel; platoon; push; sect; sort; suite
    15. inclination (noun) appearance; aspect; attitude; bent; direction; disposition; inclination; position
    16. order (noun) category; class; classification; order
    17. scenery (noun) backdrop; decoration; mise-en-scene; scene; scenery; setting; stage; stage set; stage setting
    18. belong (verb) belong; fit; go
    19. brood (verb) brood; cover; hatch; incubate; sit
    20. call (verb) approximate; call; estimate; reckon
    21. coagulate (verb) clot; coagulate; gel; gelate; gelatinize; jell; jellify; jelly
    22. dictate (verb) decree; dictate; impose; lay down; ordain; prescribe
    23. dictated (verb) decreed; dictated; imposed; laid down; ordained; prescribed
    24. direct (verb) address; aim; aimed; cast; direct; head; incline; level; point; present; train; turn; zero in
    25. establish (verb) appoint; assign; determine; establish; fix; laid; lay; place; post; spread; station; stick; stuck
    26. fixed (verb) arrange; conclude; fixed; negotiate; settle
    27. harden (verb) cake; concrete; congeal; dried; dry; gelled; harden; indurate; petrified; solidified; solidify; stiffen; thicken
    28. incite (verb) abet; foment; incite; instigate; provoke; raise; set on; stir up; whip up
    29. install (verb) adjust; attune; calibrate; frame; install; mount; order; regulate; tune
    30. put (verb) locate; position; put; site; situate
    31. sink (verb) decline; dip; go down; sink; wane
    32. value (verb) evaluate; price; prize; rate; value
    33. went (verb) bet; betted; gamble; game; play; put on; risk; stake; venture; wager; went
    Антонимический ряд:
    approximate; disorder; loosen; melt; mollify; mount; move; rise; run; soar; soften; stir; uncertain; unstable; variable

    English-Russian base dictionary > set

  • 17 Fairlie, Robert Francis

    [br]
    b. March 1831 Scotland
    d. 31 July 1885 Clapham, London, England
    [br]
    British engineer, designer of the double-bogie locomotive, advocate of narrow-gauge railways.
    [br]
    Fairlie worked on railways in Ireland and India, and established himself as a consulting engineer in London by the early 1860s. In 1864 he patented his design of locomotive: it was to be carried on two bogies and had a double boiler, the barrels extending in each direction from a central firebox. From smokeboxes at the outer ends, return tubes led to a single central chimney. At that time in British practice, locomotives of ever-increasing size were being carried on longer and longer rigid wheelbases, but often only one or two of their three or four pairs of wheels were powered. Bogies were little used and then only for carrying-wheels rather than driving-wheels: since their pivots were given no sideplay, they were of little value. Fairlie's design offered a powerful locomotive with a wheelbase which though long would be flexible; it would ride well and have all wheels driven and available for adhesion.
    The first five double Fairlie locomotives were built by James Cross \& Co. of St Helens during 1865–7. None was particularly successful: the single central chimney of the original design had been replaced by two chimneys, one at each end of the locomotive, but the single central firebox was retained, so that exhaust up one chimney tended to draw cold air down the other. In 1870 the next double Fairlie, Little Wonder, was built for the Festiniog Railway, on which C.E. Spooner was pioneering steam trains of very narrow gauge. The order had gone to George England, but the locomotive was completed by his successor in business, the Fairlie Engine \& Steam Carriage Company, in which Fairlie and George England's son were the principal partners. Little Wonder was given two inner fireboxes separated by a water space and proved outstandingly successful. The spectacle of this locomotive hauling immensely long trains up grade, through the Festiniog Railway's sinuous curves, was demonstrated before engineers from many parts of the world and had lasting effect. Fairlie himself became a great protagonist of narrow-gauge railways and influenced their construction in many countries.
    Towards the end of the 1860s, Fairlie was designing steam carriages or, as they would now be called, railcars, but only one was built before the death of George England Jr precipitated closure of the works in 1870. Fairlie's business became a design agency and his patent locomotives were built in large numbers under licence by many noted locomotive builders, for narrow, standard and broad gauges. Few operated in Britain, but many did in other lands; they were particularly successful in Mexico and Russia.
    Many Fairlie locomotives were fitted with the radial valve gear invented by Egide Walschaert; Fairlie's role in the universal adoption of this valve gear was instrumental, for he introduced it to Britain in 1877 and fitted it to locomotives for New Zealand, whence it eventually spread worldwide. Earlier, in 1869, the Great Southern \& Western Railway of Ireland had built in its works the first "single Fairlie", a 0–4–4 tank engine carried on two bogies but with only one of them powered. This type, too, became popular during the last part of the nineteenth century. In the USA it was built in quantity by William Mason of Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Massachusetts, in preference to the double-ended type.
    Double Fairlies may still be seen in operation on the Festiniog Railway; some of Fairlie's ideas were far ahead of their time, and modern diesel and electric locomotives are of the powered-bogie, double-ended type.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1864, British patent no. 1,210 (Fairlie's master patent).
    1864, Locomotive Engines, What They Are and What They Ought to Be, London; reprinted 1969, Portmadoc: Festiniog Railway Co. (promoting his ideas for locomotives).
    1865, British patent no. 3,185 (single Fairlie).
    1867. British patent no. 3,221 (combined locomotive/carriage).
    1868. "Railways and their Management", Journal of the Society of Arts: 328. 1871. "On the Gauge for Railways of the Future", abstract in Report of the Fortieth
    Meeting of the British Association in 1870: 215. 1872. British patent no. 2,387 (taper boiler).
    1872, Railways or No Railways. "Narrow Gauge, Economy with Efficiency; or Broad Gauge, Costliness with Extravagance", London: Effingham Wilson; repr. 1990s Canton, Ohio: Railhead Publications (promoting the cause for narrow-gauge railways).
    Further Reading
    Fairlie and his patent locomotives are well described in: P.C.Dewhurst, 1962, "The Fairlie locomotive", Part 1, Transactions of the Newcomen Society 34; 1966, Part 2, Transactions 39.
    R.A.S.Abbott, 1970, The Fairlie Locomotive, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Fairlie, Robert Francis

  • 18 establish **** es·tab·lish vt

    [ɪs'tæblɪʃ]
    1) (set up: company) costituire, (business) avviare, (state) creare, (committee) istituire, (custom, precedent, relations) stabilire, (power, authority, reputation) affermare, (peace, order) ristabilire
    2) (prove: fact, identity, sb's innocence) dimostrare

    English-Italian dictionary > establish **** es·tab·lish vt

  • 19 right

    1. adjective
    1) (just, morally good) richtig

    it is only right [and proper] to do something/that somebody should do something — es ist nur recht und billig, etwas zu tun/dass jemand etwas tut

    2) (correct, true) richtig

    you're [quite] right — du hast [völlig] recht

    too right! — (coll.) allerdings!

    is that clock right? — geht die Uhr da richtig?

    put or set right — richtig stellen [Irrtum]; wieder gutmachen [Unrecht]; berichtigen [Fehler]; bereinigen [Missverständnis]; wieder in Ordnung bringen [Situation, Angelegenheit, Gerät]

    put or set somebody right — jemanden berichtigen od. korrigieren

    right [you are]!, (Brit.) right oh! — (coll.) okay! (ugs.); alles klar! (ugs.)

    that's right — ja[wohl]; so ist es

    is that right? — stimmt das?; (indeed?) aha!

    [am I] right? — nicht [wahr]?; oder [nicht]? (ugs.); see also academic.ru/1723/all">all 3.

    3) (preferable, most suitable) richtig; recht

    say/do the right thing — das Richtige sagen/tun

    4) (sound, sane) richtig

    not be quite right in the head — nicht ganz richtig [im Kopf] sein

    as right as rain — (coll.) (in health) gesund wie ein Fisch im Wasser; (satisfactory) in bester Ordnung

    put somebody right — (restore to health) jemanden [wieder] auf die Beine bringen; see also mind 1. 7)

    5)

    you're a right one! — (coll.) du bist mir der/die Richtige!

    6) (opposite of left) recht...

    on the right side — auf der rechten Seite; rechts; see also turn 1. 3)

    be somebody's right arm — (fig.) jemandes rechte Hand sein

    7)

    Right — (Polit.) recht... See also right side

    2. transitive verb
    1) (correct) berichtigen; richtig stellen
    2) (restore to upright position) [wieder] aufrichten; [Boot usw.:]

    right itself — sich [von selbst] [wieder] aufrichten; (fig.): (come to proper state) [Mangel:] sich [von selbst] geben

    3. noun
    1) (fair claim, authority) Recht, das; Anrecht, das

    have a/no right to something — ein/kein Anrecht od. Recht auf etwas (Akk.) haben

    have a or the/no right to do something — das/kein Recht haben, etwas zu tun

    by right of — auf Grund (+ Gen.)

    belong to somebody as of or by right — jemandes rechtmäßiges Eigentum sein

    what right has he [got] to do that? — mit welchem Recht tut er das?

    in one's own right — aus eigenem Recht

    the right to work/life — das Recht auf Arbeit/Leben

    right of way — (right to pass across) Wegerecht, das; (path) öffentlicher Weg; (precedence) Vorfahrtsrecht, das

    be within one's rights to do something — etwas mit [Fug und] Recht tun können

    2) (what is just) Recht, das

    by right[s] — von Rechts wegen

    do right — sich richtig verhalten; richtig handeln

    do right to do something — recht daran tun, etwas zu tun

    in the right — im Recht

    3) (right-hand side) rechte Seite

    on or to the right [of somebody/something] — rechts [von jemandem/etwas]

    on or to my right, to the right of me — rechts von mir; zu meiner Rechten

    4) (Polit.)

    be on the Right of the party — dem rechten Flügel der Partei angehören

    5) in pl. (proper state)

    set or put something to rights — etwas in Ordnung bringen

    6) (in marching) see left II 3. 4)
    7) (Boxing) Rechte, die
    4. adverb
    1) (properly, correctly, justly) richtig [machen, raten, halten]

    go right — (succeed) klappen (ugs.)

    3) (all the way) bis ganz; (completely) ganz; völlig

    right through the summer — den ganzen Sommer hindurch

    right round the house — ums ganze Haus [herum]

    4) (exactly) genau

    right in the middle of something — mitten in etwas (Dat./Akk.)

    right now — im Moment; jetzt sofort, gleich [handeln]

    right on! — (coll.) (approving) recht so!; so ist's recht!; (agreeing) genau!; ganz recht!

    5) (straight) direkt; genau

    go right on [the way one is going] — [weiter] geradeaus gehen od. fahren

    6) (coll.): (immediately)

    right [away/off] — sofort; gleich

    7) (arch./dial.): (very) sehr
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) (on or related to the side of the body which in most people has the more skilful hand, or to the side of a person or thing which is toward the east when that person or thing is facing north (opposite to left): When I'm writing, I hold my pen in my right hand.) rechts
    2) (correct: Put that book back in the right place; Is that the right answer to the question?) richtig
    3) (morally correct; good: It's not right to let thieves keep what they have stolen.) richtig
    4) (suitable; appropriate: He's not the right man for this job; When would be the right time to ask him?) richtig
    2. noun
    1) (something a person is, or ought to be, allowed to have, do etc: Everyone has the right to a fair trial; You must fight for your rights; You have no right to say that.) das Recht
    2) (that which is correct or good: Who's in the right in this argument?) das Recht, im Rechten
    3) (the right side, part or direction: Turn to the right; Take the second road on the right.)
    4) (in politics, the people, group, party or parties holding the more traditional beliefs etc.) die Rechten
    3. adverb
    1) (exactly: He was standing right here.) direkt
    2) (immediately: I'll go right after lunch; I'll come right down.) sofort
    3) (close: He was standing right beside me.) direkt
    4) (completely; all the way: The bullet went right through his arm.) ganz
    5) (to the right: Turn right.) rechts
    6) (correctly: Have I done that right?; I don't think this sum is going to turn out right.) richtig
    4. verb
    1) (to bring back to the correct, usually upright, position: The boat tipped over, but righted itself again.) (auf)richten
    2) (to put an end to and make up for something wrong that has been done: He's like a medieval knight, going about the country looking for wrongs to right.) wiedergutmachen
    5. interjection
    (I understand; I'll do what you say etc: `I want you to type some letters for me.' `Right, I'll do them now.') gut
    - righteous
    - righteously
    - righteousness
    - rightful
    - rightfully
    - rightly
    - rightness
    - righto
    - right-oh
    - rights
    - right angle
    - right-angled
    - right-hand
    - right-handed
    - right wing     6. adjective
    ((right-wing) (having opinions which are) of this sort.) richtig
    - right-winger
    - by rights
    - by right
    - get
    - keep on the right side of
    - get right
    - go right
    - not in one's right mind
    - not quite right in the head
    - not right in the head
    - put right
    - put/set to rights
    - right away
    - right-hand man
    - right now
    - right of way
    - serve right
    * * *
    [raɪt]
    1. inv (morally good) richtig; (fair) gerecht
    it was \right of you to tell me es war richtig von dir, es mir zu sagen
    you're \right to be annoyed du bist zu Recht verärgert
    to do the \right thing das Richtige tun
    \right and proper recht und billig
    2. inv (correct) answer, direction, order, position richtig; time genau
    were you given the \right change? hat man dir richtig herausgegeben?
    do you have the \right time? können Sie mir bitte sagen, wie spät es ist?
    is your watch \right? geht deine Uhr richtig?
    the \right way round [or AM around] richtig herum
    to get sth \right etw richtig machen
    you got three answers \right du hast drei Antworten richtig
    did you get that sum \right? hast du [da] richtig gerechnet?
    to put sth \right etw richtigstellen
    to put a clock \right eine Uhr richtig einstellen
    to put matters \right Tatsachen richtigstellen
    to put sb \right jdn berichtigen
    3. pred, inv (correct in opinion)
    am I \right in thinking that... gehe ich recht in der Annahme, dass...
    you were \right about him Sie haben was ihn angeht Recht gehabt
    to put [or set] sb \right ( fam) jdn eines Besseren belehren
    4. inv (interrogative) oder, richtig
    you're leaving tomorrow, \right? Sie haben doch vor, morgen abzureisen, oder [o richtig]?
    5. inv (best) richtig
    he's the \right person for the job er ist der Richtige für den Job
    he thought the time was \right to... er dachte, das sei der passende [o richtige] Zeitpunkt, um...
    to be on the \right lines auf dem richtigen Weg sein
    to be in the \right place at the \right time zur rechten Zeit am rechten Ort sein
    6. inv (important) people, places richtig
    7. pred, inv (working correctly) in Ordnung
    something isn't quite \right with the brakes irgendetwas stimmt mit den Bremsen nicht [ganz] fam
    to put a machine \right eine Maschine reparieren [o in Ordnung bringen
    8. inv (healthy)
    to put [or set] sb \right jdn gesund machen
    to be not [quite] \right in the head ( fam) nicht [ganz] richtig im Kopf sein fam
    to be/be not in one's \right mind [ganz]/nicht [ganz] bei Verstand sein
    to be as \right as rain ( fam) sich akk gut [o kerngesund] fühlen
    9. inv (not left) rechte(r, s)
    I would give my \right hand to meet the President ( fam) ich würde alles dafür geben, [um] mal den Präsidenten zu treffen fam
    \right helix CHEM rechtsdrehende Helix
    a \right hook SPORT ein rechter Haken
    to make a \right turn rechts abbiegen
    10. inv (conservative) rechte(r, s)
    11. attr, inv esp BRIT ( fam: complete) völlige(r, s), totale(r, s) fam
    he's a \right idiot er ist ein Vollidiot [o totaler Idiot] fam
    a \right one ein Dummkopf m fam
    we've got a \right one here! hier haben wir ja einen richtigen Knallkopf! fam
    II. ADVERB
    1. inv (completely) völlig, ganz
    the car ran \right out of fuel der Tank war völlig leer
    she walked \right past me sie lief direkt an mir vorbei
    \right through durch und durch
    to be \right behind sb voll [und ganz] hinter jdm stehen
    2. inv (all the way) ganz; (directly) genau, direkt
    I filled the bath \right up to the top ich habe die Badewanne [bis zum Rand] volllaufen lassen
    she came up \right behind me plötzlich stand sie direkt hinter mir
    3. inv ( fam: immediately) gleich
    he'll be \right back er ist gleich [wieder] zurück
    I'll be \right with you ich komme sofort
    \right now gleich jetzt, im Moment
    4. inv (correctly) richtig
    \right on! ( fam) ganz genau!
    \right enough ( fam) völlig richtig
    it's a hard job \right enough es ist ein echt harter Job
    to guess \right richtig raten
    to do \right by sb sich akk jdm gegenüber anständig [o korrekt] verhalten
    6. inv (properly) gut
    to go \right gut laufen; (end) gut ausgehen
    things have been going \right for me es läuft gut für mich
    7. inv (not left) rechts
    to go [or turn] \right [nach] rechts abbiegen
    the R\right Honourable Sarah Bast, MP die sehr Ehrenwerte Sarah Bast, Mitglied des Parlaments
    the R\right Reverend John Jones Bischof John Jones
    9.
    ▶ \right away [or BRIT also ( fam) off] sofort, [jetzt] gerade fam
    III. NOUN
    1. no pl (goodness) Recht nt
    the difference between \right and wrong der Unterschied zwischen Recht und Unrecht
    2. (morally correct thing) das Richtige
    to discuss the \rights and wrongs of sth [über] das Für und Wider [o das Pro und Kontra] einer S. gen diskutieren
    3. (claim, entitlement) Recht nt
    the \right to sth das Anrecht auf etw akk
    \right of abode Wohnrecht nt
    \right of asylum Asylrecht nt
    \right of determination Bestimmungsrecht nt
    \right of entry Eintrittsrecht nt
    \right of free speech Recht nt auf freie Meinungsäußerung
    \right of indemnity Ersatzanspruch m
    \right of inspection Einsichtsrecht nt
    \right of lien Pfandrecht nt
    \right of recourse Rückgriffsrecht nt
    \right to recourse Regressrecht nt
    \right of residence Wohnrecht nt
    women's \rights die Frauenrechte pl, die Rechte pl der Frau[en]
    pre-emptive \right ECON Bezugsrecht nt fachspr
    established \right Gewohnheitsrecht nt
    it is sb's [legal] \right to do sth es ist jds gutes Recht, etw zu tun
    it's my \right as a doctor to... es ist mein Recht als Arzt, zu...
    to be within one's \rights to do sth das Recht haben, etw zu tun; (I am within my rights) das ist mein gutes Recht
    to have the \right to do sth das Recht haben, etw zu tun
    what \right have you got to criticize me? was gibt dir das Recht, mich zu kritisieren?
    to know one's \rights seine Rechte kennen
    to stand up for one's \rights für seine Rechte einstehen
    by \rights von Rechts wegen
    4. (authority, ownership)
    ▪ \rights pl Rechte pl (to an + dat)
    fishing \rights Fischereirechte pl
    5. no pl (right side) rechte Seite
    on [or to] the \right rechts, auf der rechten Seite, zur Rechten geh
    on my/her \right rechts [von mir/ihr], zu meiner/ihrer Rechten geh
    6. no pl (turn)
    to make [or take] [or AM ( fam) hang] a \right [nach] rechts abbiegen
    7. no pl (road)
    the first/second \right die erste/zweite [Straße] rechts
    take the second \right fahren Sie die zweite rechts [rein fam]
    8. (fist) Rechte f; (blow) rechter Haken
    9. + sing/pl vb POL
    ▪ the R\right die Rechte
    the far \right die Rechtsextremen pl
    on the \right im rechten Lager
    10.
    ▶ by \right of sth aufgrund einer S. gen
    ▶ to be in the \right im Recht sein
    ▶ in one's own \right selber
    ▶ to put [or set] sth to \rights etw in Ordnung bringen
    to put [or set] the world to \rights die Welt verbessern
    1.
    ▪ to \right sth (correct position) etw aufrichten; (correct condition) etw in Ordnung bringen
    the boat will \right itself if it capsizes das Boot balanciert sich von selbst wieder aus, wenn es kentert
    2. (rectify)
    to \right a mistake/wrong einen Fehler/ein Unrecht wiedergutmachen
    ( fam)
    1. (okay) in Ordnung, okay fam
    \right you are! in Ordnung!
    2. BRIT ( fam: agreed)
    too \right! wohl [o nur zu] wahr!
    3. (filler word) also
    so we were on our way to work, \right, when... also, wir waren auf dem Weg zur Arbeit, als...
    4. (as introduction)
    \right, let's go also, nichts wie los fam
    5. AUS (reassuring) nur keine Sorge
    * * *
    [raɪt]
    1. adj
    1) (= just, fair, morally good) richtig, recht (S Ger)

    he thought it right to warn me — er hielt es für richtig, mich zu warnen

    it seemed only right to give him the money — es schien richtig, ihm das Geld zu geben

    it is only right to point out that... — es ist nur recht und billig, wenn man darauf hinweist, dass...

    2) (= true, correct) answer, solution, time, train richtig

    to be right (person) — recht haben; (answer, solution) richtig sein, stimmen; (clock) richtig gehen

    how right you are! (inf) — da haben Sie ganz recht

    you were right to refuse or in refusing — Sie hatten recht, als Sie ablehnten

    let's get it right this time! — mach es dieses Mal richtig; (in reporting facts etc) sag es dieses Mal richtig

    to put or set right (error) — korrigieren; clock richtig stellen; situation wieder in Ordnung bringen

    I tried to put things right after their quarrel — ich versuchte, nach ihrem Streit wieder einzulenken

    3) (= proper) clothes, document richtig

    what's the right thing to do in this case? —

    that is the right way of looking at it —

    Mr/Miss Right (inf) — der/die Richtige (inf)

    we will do what is right for the country —

    4)

    (= well) the medicine soon put or set him right — die Medizin hat ihn schnell wiederhergestellt or wieder auf die Beine gebracht

    to be as right as rain (Brit) — kerngesund sein; (after accident) keine Schramme abbekommen haben (inf)

    nobody in their right mind would... — kein vernünftiger Mensch würde...

    who in their right mind would...? — welcher vernünftige Mensch würde...?

    See:
    5)

    (phrases) right you are! ( Brit inf ) — gut, schön, okay (inf)

    right on! ( esp US inf ) — super! (sl)

    that's right, dear, put it on the table — schön, stell es bitte auf den Tisch

    so they came in the end – is that right? — und so kamen sie schließlich – wirklich?

    6) (= opposite of left) rechte(r, s)

    right hand —

    I'd give my right hand to know the answer — ich würde was drum geben, wenn ich die Antwort wüsste (inf)

    on your right hand — rechter Hand, rechts

    7)
    2. adv
    1) (= straight, directly) direkt; (= exactly) genau

    right in front/ahead of you — direkt or genau vor Ihnen

    go right on — gehen/fahren Sie geradeaus weiter

    right in the middle — genau or direkt in der/die Mitte

    2) (= completely, all the way) ganz

    right round the house — ganz um das Haus herum; (inside) durch das ganze Haus

    3) (= correctly) richtig

    nothing goes right for them — nichts klappt bei ihnen (inf), bei ihnen läuft alles schief (inf)

    I'll see you right (inf) — ich werde aufpassen, dass Sie nicht zu kurz kommen (inf)

    See:
    → serve
    4) (old, dial: very) sehr; (Brit)
    5) (= opposite of left) rechts

    to be cheated right, left and centre or right and left (inf) — von vorne bis hinten betrogen werden (inf)

    3. n
    1) no pl (moral, legal) Recht nt
    2) (= entitlement) Recht nt; (to sth) (An)recht nt, Anspruch m

    to have a or the right to do sth — ein or das Recht haben, etw zu tun

    by rights — rechtmäßig, von Rechts wegen

    in one's own right —

    See:
    → civil rights
    3) pl (COMM) Rechte pl

    to have the ( sole) rights to sth — die (alleinigen) Rechte an etw (dat) haben

    4)
    5) (= not left) rechte Seite

    to keep to the right — sich rechts halten, rechts bleiben

    those to the right of him (Pol) — diejenigen, die weiter rechts stehen als er

    4. vt
    1) (= return to upright position) aufrichten
    2) (= make amends for) wrong wiedergutmachen
    3)
    * * *
    right [raıt]
    A adj (adv → C und rightly)
    1. richtig, recht, angemessen:
    it is only right (and proper) es ist nur recht und billig ( that dass);
    he is right to do ( oder in doing) so er hat recht oder er tut recht daran(, so zu handeln);
    he does not do it the right way er macht es nicht richtig;
    the right thing das Richtige;
    say the right thing das rechte Wort finden;
    think it right es für richtig oder angebracht halten;
    know the right people die richtigen Leute kennen, Beziehungen haben; → all Bes Redew
    2. richtig:
    a) korrekt
    b) den Tatsachen entsprechend, wahr (-heitsgemäß):
    the solution is right die Lösung stimmt oder ist richtig;
    is your watch right? geht Ihre Uhr richtig?;
    am I right for …? bin ich auf dem richtigen Weg nach …?;
    be right recht haben;
    right you are! richtig!, jawohl!;
    that’s right! ganz recht!, richtig!, stimmt!;
    prove sb right beweisen, dass jemand recht hat; jemandem recht geben (Ereignis);
    right? umg richtig?, nicht wahr?;
    3. richtig, geeignet:
    he is the right man er ist der Richtige;
    the right man in the right place der rechte Mann am rechten Platz;
    Mr (Miss) Right umg der (die) Richtige (als Ehepartner)
    4. gesund:
    out of one’s right mind, not right in one’s ( oder the) head umg nicht richtig (im Kopf), nicht ganz oder recht bei Trost;
    in one’s right mind, quite right in one’s ( oder the) mind bei klarem Verstand; → rain A 1
    5. richtig, in Ordnung:
    come right in Ordnung kommen;
    a) in Ordnung bringen,
    b) jemanden aufklären (on über akk),
    c) einen Irrtum richtigstellen,
    d) jemanden gesund machen;
    put o.s. right with sb
    a) sich vor jemandem rechtfertigen,
    b) sich mit jemandem gut stellen
    6. recht(er, e, es), Rechts…:
    right hand rechte Hand (a. fig Vertrauensperson);
    a) rechte Seite, Oberseite f (auch von Stoffen, Münzen etc),
    b) fig schöne(re) Seite;
    on ( oder to) the right side rechts, rechter Hand;
    on the right side of 50 noch nicht 50 (Jahre alt);
    stay on the right side of sb es sich mit jemandem nicht verderben; → arm1 Bes Redew
    7. obs rechtmäßig (Erbe etc)
    8. MATH
    a) rechter (Winkel): → angle1 A 1
    b) rechtwink(e)lig (Dreieck)
    c) gerade (Linie)
    d) senkrecht (Figur)
    9. POL recht(er, e, es), rechtsgerichtet, Rechts…:
    be very right sehr weit rechts stehen
    B s
    1. besonders JUR Recht n:
    as of right von Rechts wegen, kraft Gesetzes;
    by rights eigentlich;
    in the right im Recht;
    right or wrong Recht od Unrecht;
    know right from wrong Recht von Unrecht unterscheiden können;
    do sb right jemandem Gerechtigkeit widerfahren lassen;
    give sb their rights jemandem sein Recht geben oder lassen
    2. JUR
    a) (subjektives) Recht, Anrecht n, (Rechts)Anspruch m ( alle:
    to auf akk)
    b) Berechtigung f:
    right of inheritance Erbschaftsanspruch;
    right of possession Eigentumsrecht;
    right of sale Verkaufs-, Vertriebsrecht;
    right to vote Wahl-, Stimmrecht;
    rights and duties Rechte und Pflichten;
    by right of kraft (gen), aufgrund von (od gen);
    a) im Namen seiner Frau,
    b) vonseiten seiner Frau;
    have a right to (ein) Anrecht haben auf;
    know one’s rights seine Rechte kennen;
    stand on one’s right(s) auf seinem Recht bestehen;
    in one’s own right
    a) aus eigenem Recht,
    b) selbstständig, für sich (allein), selbst;
    countess in her own right Gräfin f aus eigenem Recht (durch Erbrecht, nicht durch Ehe);
    be within one’s own rights das Recht auf seiner Seite haben;
    what right have they to do that? mit welchem Recht tun sie das?;
    equal rights pl for women die Gleichberechtigung der Frau; → assemble B, assembly 1, common B 2, exist 1, privacy 2, reserve A 5, right of way, self-determination
    3. WIRTSCH
    a) (Ankaufs-, Vorkaufs) Recht n, Berechtigung f
    b) oft pl Bezugsrecht n (auf Aktien oder Obligationen)
    c) Bezug(s)schein m
    4. (das) Rechte oder Richtige:
    5. pl (richtige) Ordnung:
    bring ( oder put, set) sth to rights etwas (wieder) in Ordnung bringen;
    the world was set to rights again die Welt war wieder in Ordnung
    6. pl wahrer Sachverhalt
    7. (die) Rechte, rechte Seite (auch von Stoff):
    on ( oder at, to) the right (of) zur Rechten (gen), rechts (von), auf der rechten Seite (von oder gen), rechter Hand (von);
    on our right zu unserer Rechten, uns zur Rechten;
    the second turning to ( oder on) the right die zweite Querstraße rechts;
    a) sich rechts halten,
    b) AUTO rechts fahren;
    be to the right of POL rechts stehen von
    8. rechte Hand, Rechte f
    9. Boxen: Rechte f (Hand oder Schlag)
    10. the right, auch the Right POL die Rechte
    11. pl JAGD unterste Enden pl (des Hirschgeweihs)
    C adv
    1. gerade(wegs), direkt:
    right ahead ( oder on) geradeaus
    2. völlig, ganz (u. gar):
    turn right round sich ganz herumdrehen;
    rotten right through durch und durch faul
    3. genau, direkt:
    4. auch right away ( oder off) sofort, (so)gleich:
    right at the outset gleich am Anfang;
    I’ll be right back ich bin gleich wieder da;
    right now (gerade) jetzt, augenblicklich, im Moment; → start A 4
    5. richtig, recht:
    act ( oder do) right richtig handeln;
    you did right to inf es war richtig von dir, dass du …;
    guess right richtig (er)raten;
    if I get you right wenn ich Sie richtig verstehe; → serve B 11
    6. obs recht, ganz:
    know right well sehr wohl oder recht gut wissen
    7. recht, richtig, gut:
    nothing goes right with me (bei) mit geht alles schief;
    turn out right gut ausgehen
    8. rechts ( from von; to nach), auf der rechten Seite, rechter Hand:
    turn right (sich) nach rechts wenden;
    a) rechts und links,
    b) fig a. right, left and center (bes Br centre) überall;
    right about face! MIL (ganze Abteilung,) kehrt!
    9. dial oder umg richtig:
    10. hoch, sehr (in Titeln): → honorable 5, reverend A 2
    D v/t
    1. (aus-, auf)richten, in die richtige Lage bringen:
    right the machine FLUG die Maschine abfangen;
    the boat rights herself das Schiff richtet sich wieder auf
    2. einen Fehler, Irrtum berichtigen:
    a) sich wieder ausgleichen,
    b) (wieder) in Ordnung kommen
    3. ein Zimmer etc (her)richten, in Ordnung bringen
    4. ein Unrecht, einen Schaden etc wiedergutmachen
    5. a) jemandem zu seinem Recht verhelfen
    b)(o.s. sich) rehabilitieren
    E v/i
    a) sich (wieder) aufrichten
    b) in die richtige Lage kommen
    rt abk right
    * * *
    1. adjective
    1) (just, morally good) richtig

    it is only right [and proper] to do something/that somebody should do something — es ist nur recht und billig, etwas zu tun/dass jemand etwas tut

    2) (correct, true) richtig

    you're [quite] right — du hast [völlig] recht

    too right! — (coll.) allerdings!

    put or set right — richtig stellen [Irrtum]; wieder gutmachen [Unrecht]; berichtigen [Fehler]; bereinigen [Missverständnis]; wieder in Ordnung bringen [Situation, Angelegenheit, Gerät]

    put or set somebody right — jemanden berichtigen od. korrigieren

    right [you are]!, (Brit.) right oh! — (coll.) okay! (ugs.); alles klar! (ugs.)

    that's right — ja[wohl]; so ist es

    is that right? — stimmt das?; (indeed?) aha!

    [am I] right? — nicht [wahr]?; oder [nicht]? (ugs.); see also all 3.

    3) (preferable, most suitable) richtig; recht

    say/do the right thing — das Richtige sagen/tun

    4) (sound, sane) richtig

    not be quite right in the head — nicht ganz richtig [im Kopf] sein

    as right as rain — (coll.) (in health) gesund wie ein Fisch im Wasser; (satisfactory) in bester Ordnung

    put somebody right — (restore to health) jemanden [wieder] auf die Beine bringen; see also mind 1. 7)

    5)

    you're a right one! — (coll.) du bist mir der/die Richtige!

    6) (opposite of left) recht...

    on the right side — auf der rechten Seite; rechts; see also turn 1. 3)

    be somebody's right arm — (fig.) jemandes rechte Hand sein

    7)

    Right — (Polit.) recht... See also right side

    2. transitive verb
    1) (correct) berichtigen; richtig stellen
    2) (restore to upright position) [wieder] aufrichten; [Boot usw.:]

    right itself — sich [von selbst] [wieder] aufrichten; (fig.): (come to proper state) [Mangel:] sich [von selbst] geben

    3. noun
    1) (fair claim, authority) Recht, das; Anrecht, das

    have a/no right to something — ein/kein Anrecht od. Recht auf etwas (Akk.) haben

    have a or the/no right to do something — das/kein Recht haben, etwas zu tun

    by right of — auf Grund (+ Gen.)

    belong to somebody as of or by right — jemandes rechtmäßiges Eigentum sein

    what right has he [got] to do that? — mit welchem Recht tut er das?

    the right to work/life — das Recht auf Arbeit/Leben

    right of way — (right to pass across) Wegerecht, das; (path) öffentlicher Weg; (precedence) Vorfahrtsrecht, das

    be within one's rights to do something — etwas mit [Fug und] Recht tun können

    2) (what is just) Recht, das

    by right[s] — von Rechts wegen

    do right — sich richtig verhalten; richtig handeln

    do right to do something — recht daran tun, etwas zu tun

    3) (right-hand side) rechte Seite

    on or to the right [of somebody/something] — rechts [von jemandem/etwas]

    on or to my right, to the right of me — rechts von mir; zu meiner Rechten

    4) (Polit.)
    5) in pl. (proper state)

    set or put something to rights — etwas in Ordnung bringen

    6) (in marching) see left II 3. 4)
    7) (Boxing) Rechte, die
    4. adverb
    1) (properly, correctly, justly) richtig [machen, raten, halten]

    go right — (succeed) klappen (ugs.)

    3) (all the way) bis ganz; (completely) ganz; völlig

    right round the house — ums ganze Haus [herum]

    4) (exactly) genau

    right now — im Moment; jetzt sofort, gleich [handeln]

    right on! — (coll.) (approving) recht so!; so ist's recht!; (agreeing) genau!; ganz recht!

    5) (straight) direkt; genau

    go right on [the way one is going] — [weiter] geradeaus gehen od. fahren

    6) (coll.): (immediately)

    right [away/off] — sofort; gleich

    7) (arch./dial.): (very) sehr
    * * *
    adj.
    genau adj.
    gerade adj.
    gleich adj.
    recht adj.
    rechts adj.
    richtig adj.
    sehr adj. adv.
    genau adv.
    recht adv.
    richtig adv. n.
    Berechtigung f.
    Recht -e n.

    English-german dictionary > right

  • 20 Armed forces

       Although armed force has been a major factor in the development of the Portuguese nation-state, a standing army did not exist until after the War of Restoration (1641-48). During the 18th century, Portugal's small army was drawn into many European wars. In 1811, a combined Anglo-Portuguese army drove the French army of Napoleon out of the country. After Germany declared war on Portugal in March 1916, two Portuguese divisions were conscripted and sent to France, where they sustained heavy casualties at the Battle of Lys in April 1918. As Portugal and Spain were neutral in World War II, the Portuguese Army cooperated with the Spanish army to defend Iberian neutrality. In 1949, Portugal became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). When the nationalist quest for independence began in Portugal's colonies in Africa ( Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau) in the 1960s, the military effort (1961-74) to suppress the nationalists resulted in an expansion of the Portuguese armed forces to about 250,000.
       Since the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the number of personnel on active duty in the army, navy, and air force has been greatly reduced (43,200 in 2007) and given a more direct role in NATO. New NATO commitments led to the organization of the Brigada Mista Independente (Independent Composite Brigade), later converted into the Brigada Aero-Transportada. (Air-Transported Brigade) to be used in the defense of Europe's southern flank. The Portuguese air force and navy are responsible for the defense of the Azores-Madeira-Portugal strategic triangle.
       Chronic military intervention in Portuguese political life began in the 19th century. These interventions usually began with revolts of the military ( pronunciamentos) in order to get rid of what were considered by the armed forces corrupt or incompetent civilian governments. The army overthrew the monarchy on the 5 October 1910 and established Portugal's First Republic. It overthrew the First Republic on 28 May 1926 and established a military dictatorship. The army returned to the barracks during the Estado Novo of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. The armed forces once again returned to politics when the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) overthrew the Estado Novo on 25 April 1974. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the armed forces again played a major role in Portuguese politics through the Council of the Revolution, which was composed of the president of the Republic, Chiefs of the general staff, three service chiefs, and 14 MFA officers. The Council of the Revolution advised the president on the selection of the prime minister and could veto legislation.
       The subordination of the Portuguese armed forces to civilian authority began in 1982, when revisions to the Constitution abolished the Council of the Revolution and redefined the mission of the armed forces to that of safeguarding and defending the national territory. By the early 1990s, the political influence of Portugal armed force had waned and civilian control was reinforced with the National Defense Laws of 1991, which made the chief of the general staff of the armed forces directly responsible to the minister of defense, not the president of the republic, as had been the case previously. As the end of the Cold War had eliminated the threat of a Soviet invasion of western Europe, Portuguese armed forces continues to be scaled back and reorganized. Currently, the focus is on modernization to achieve high operational efficiency in certain areas such as air defense, naval patrols, and rapid-response capability in case of terrorist attack. Compulsory military service was ended in 2004. The Portuguese armed forces have been employed as United Nations peacekeepers in East Timor, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Lebanon.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Armed forces

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